LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Gl  FT    OF 

..C !L^/JOrLfc^....VlAA^ 


'Class 


NORMAL  TRAINING 


-IN  THE- 


HIGH  SCHOOLS 


OF 


NEBRASKA 


DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 
LINCOLN 

December  3,  1907 


OF  THE     " 

UNlVERsn 

OF 


NORMAL  TRAINING 


IN  THE 


HIGH  SCHOOLS 


OF 

NEBRASKA 


OF 


DEPARTMENT   OF  PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION 

LINCOLN 
December  3,   1907 


o 


State  of  Nebraska 

Department  of  Public  Instruction 

Lincoln 


J.  L.   McBRIEN Superintendent 

E.  C.  BISHOP Deputy,  and  Inspector  of  High  Schools  not 

Accredited  to  the  University  of  Nebraska 

W.D.REDMOND Assistant 

I.  A.  DOWNEY Inspector  of  Normal  Training  in  High  Schools 

JENNIE  B.   ADAMS Secretary 

MARTHA  BRANDT Stenographer 

STATE  BOARDS  OF  EXAMINERS 

STATE  CERTIFICATES 

C.  A.  FULMER.   Beatrice President 

E.  J.  BODWELL,  Norfolk Vice-President 

CORA  O'CONNELL,  Ashland Secretary 

COUNTY  CERTIFICATES 

JOSEPH  SPARKS President. 

T.  A.  BUTCHER Vice-President 

W.  D.  REDMOND Secretary-Treasurer 

ELIZABETH  POLLOCK Stenographer 

EFFIE  DENHAM   . 


NELLIE  BRUNER..... 
NELLIE  D.  CROWLEY 


.  .Examiners  and  Recorders 


NEBRASKA  BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  INDUSTRIAL  ASSOCIATIONS 
E.  C.  BISHOP , State  Manager 

OFFICIAL  ORGAN, 

For  the  Publication  of  Official  Decisions,  Notices,  Comments,  Etc. 
THE  NEBRASKA  TEACHER. Lincoln,   Nebraska. 

1 62900 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


If  there  were  any  who  ever  doubtfid  the  demand  for  normal  train- 
ing in  the  high  schools  of  Nebraska,  that  doubt  must  be  dispelled  in  the 
face  of  the  number  of  schools  that  have  qualified  for  this  work 
and  the  number  of  students  in  these  schools  who  have  registered  for  the 
work.  On  September  7,  1907,  *one  hundred  six  of  the  strongest  high 
in  the  state,  at  least  one  in  each  representative  district,  were  notified  to 
schools  in  the  state,  at  least  one  in  each  representative  district,  were 
notified  to  make  a  showing  of  their  equipment  and  ability  to  do  this 
work.  On  September  14  a  second  notification  was  sent,  in  which  it  was 
stated:  "If  you  wish  your  school  to  be  considered  for  this  work,  see 
to  it  that  the  application  blank  from  your  board  of  education  and  all 
other  necessary  blanks  are  filled  out  and  returned  to  this  department 
not  later  than  October  1,  1907. 

*The  following  is  the  list  of  106  schools  to  whom  our  letters  of  Sep- 
tember 6  and  14  were  mailed:  Ainsworth.Alliance  Albion,Alma,  Arapa- 
hoe,  Ashland,  Atkinson,  Auburn,  Aurora,  Bancroft,  Beatrice,  Beaver 
City,  Blair,  Bloomfield,  Bloomington,  Blue  Hill,  Broken  Bow,  Burwell, 
Cambridge,  Cedar  Rapids,  Central  City,  Chadron, Columbus, Crawford, 
Creighton,  Crete,  Culbertson,  Curtis,  David  City,  Emerson,  Pairbury, 
Fairfield,  Fairmont,  Falls  City,  Franklin,  Fremont,  Friend,  Fullerton, 
Geneva,  Gothenburg,  Grand  Island,  Hartington,  Harvard,  Hastings, 
Havelock,  Hebron,  Holdrege,  Humboldt,  Imperial,  Kearney,  Lexington, 
Lincoln,  Loup  City,  McCook,  Madison,  Minden,  Nebraska  City,  Neligh, 
Nelson,  Norfolk,  North  Platte,  Oakland,  O'Connor,  Ogalalla,  Omaha, 
O'Neill,  Ord,  Osceola,  Papillion,  Pawnee  City,  Pender,  Pierce,  Plain- 
View,  Plattsmouth,  Ponca,  Randolph,  Ravenna,  Red  Cloud,  Rushville, 
St.Paul,  Schuyler,  Scottsbluff,  Scribner,  Seward,  Shelton,  Sidney,  South 
Omaha,  Spencer,  Stanton,  Stratton,  Stromsburg,  Superior,  Sutton,  Syra- 
cuse, Tecumseh,  Trenton,  University  Place,  Valentine,  Wahoo,  Wayne, 
Weeping  Water,  West  Point,  Wilber,  Wisner,  Wymore,  York. 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


I  have  recognized  sixty-four  high  schools  as  equipped  and  qualified 
to  do  normal  training  work  for  the  school  year  1907-8.  It  will  be  found 
that  normal  training  classes  in  high  schools  will  vary  in  number  the 
same  as  the  regular  graduating  classes  do  from  year  to  year.  In  all 
probability  it  will  be  possible  for  some  schools  to  qualify  next  year 
that  could  not  qualify  this  year,  and  likewise  some  schools  that  have 
qualified  this  year  will  not  be  able  to  qualify  next  year.  Recognition 
will  be  given  for  but  one  year  at  a  time. 

It  was  undoubtedly  the  intent  of  the  legislature  when  it  appropriated 
$50,000  for  the  promotion  of  this  work  in  the  strongest  high  schools 
of  Nebraska  that  none  but  those  who  actually  desire  to  fit  themselves  to 
teach  in  the  public  schools  of  this  state  upon  their  graduation  from  high 
school  should  be  permitted  to  take  this  work.  Therefore  the  following 
obligation  was  required  of  all  desiring  admission  to  normal  training 
classes  in  Nebraska  high  schools: 

"We,the  undersigned, hereby  declare  that  our  object  in  asking  ad- 
mission to  the  normal  training  class  in —  -  high  school  is  to  pre- 
pare ourselves  for  teaching,  and  it  is  our  purpose  to  engage  in  teaching 
in  the  public  schools  of  Nebraska  at  the  completion  of  such  prepara- 
tion. We  pledge  ourselves  to  remain  in  the  class  the  required  time  un- 
less prevented  by  illness  or  excused  by  the  state  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction." 

In  the  sixty-four  high  schools  recognized  1,103  juniors  and  seniors 
have  subscribed  to  the  required  declaration.  This  is  a  showing  far  be- 
yond the  most  sanguine  expectations  of  the  most  enthusiastic  friends  of 
this  movement.  It  is  more  than  the  combined  enrollment  at  this  time 
in  the  two  state  normal  schools. 

In  our  notification  to  the  one  hundred  six  high  schools,  we  endeavor- 
ed to  impress  upon  them  that  qualifications  on  paper  would  not  answer. 
It  was  emphaticaly  stated  that  the  work  must  be  actually  done  by  com- 
petent instructors  in  every  school. 

Two  agencies  of  supervision  will  be  employed — examination  and  in- 
spection. The  examinations  will  be  conducted  under  the.  same  rules  and 
regulations  governing  the  issuance  of  teachers'  certificates  under  the 
certification  law.  The  same  care  will  be  exercised  in  the  preparation 
of  questions  and  grading  of  answer  papers  by  the  state  examining 
board  for  county  certificates.  These  examinations  will  serve  as  a,  final 
test  of  proficiency  on  the  part  of  those  pursuing  the  instruction  as  well 
as  those  giving  it.  They  are  therefore  an  impertant  means  of  instruc- 
tion and  supervision.  It  will  be  the  aim  to  make  the  questions  for 
these  examinations  suggestive  and  directive — teaching  questions  as  well 
as  test  questions. 

At  least  once  every  term  each  class  in  normal  training  will  be  visited 
by  a  representative  of  this  department,  who  will  submit  a  written  report 
of  each  class  visited,  covering  the  following  points: Membership, average 
age  and  appearance  of  members,  credentials  of  admission,  room  and 


QUALIFICATIONS  FOR  ADMISSION. 


equipment,  names  and  qualifications  of  instructors,  character  of  in- 
struction both  subject  matter  and  professional,  and  observation  work. 
After  the  reports  of  the  examiners  and  inspectors  are  all  in,  a  circular 
letter  based  on  these  reports  will  be  issued  to  the  superintendents, 
principals  and  normal  training  class  instructors,  containing  general 
criticisms  and  suggestions;  also  a  table  of  results,  showing  subject  by 
subject  the  total  number  of  papers  submitted,  the  total  number  of  pa- 
pers accepted,  the  total  number  ninety  per  cent  or  above, the  number 
below  60  per  cent,  and  the  percentage  of  accepted  papers  or  passing 
grades  earned. 

In  accordance  with  section  29,  subdivision  13,  school  laws  of  Neb- 
raska for  1907,  I  have  appointedSuperintendent  Isaac  A.  Downey  of 
Hastings  as  Inspector  of  Normal  Training  Work  in  the  high  schools  of 
Nebraska. 

Mr.  Downey  obtained  his  education  in  the  Christian  College  at  Oska- 
loosa,  Iowa.  He  has  specialized  in  psychology  and  the  history  of  edu- 
cation under  Dr.  W.  A.  Clark  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Kearney 
during  the  past  two  years.  He  holds  a  state  professional  certificate 
good  for  life  in  Nebraska.  His  experience  covers  all  lines  of  school  work. 
He  has  served  as  county  superintendent  of  Adams  county.  He  is  secre- 
tary of  the  Nebraska  State  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  Board.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Committee  on  Legislation,  representing  the  fifth  con- 
gressional district,  appointed  by  the  last  state  teachers'  association. 
He  entered  upon  his  new  work  October  15,  1907  His  appointment  meets 
with  the  hearty  approval  of  the  school  men  throughout  the  state. 

Normal  training  in  high  schools  is  not  a  new  question  in  the  educa- 
tional world.  It  was  first  inaugurated  in  the  state  of  New  York  about 
seventy-five  years  ago.  This  was  before  the  opening  or  the  first  state 
normal  school  in  America  at  Lexington,  Massachusetts,  July  3,  1839. 
During  the  past  twenty  years  New  York  state  has  appropriated  $100,000 
annually  for  normal  training  in  her  strongest  high  schools,  notwith- 
standing she  has  300  colleges,  universities,  academies  and  seminaries, 
and  sixteen  full  fledged  state  normal  schools.  Last  year  2,921  prospec- 
tive teachers  received  normal  training  in  the  high  schools  of  New  York. 
During  the  current  biennium  at  least  2,000  prospective  teachers  will 
be  given  normal  training  in  the  high  schools  of  Nebraska.  I  make  bold 
to  assert  that  this  will  do  more  toward  giving  us  better  qualified  teach- 
ers for  the  rural  schools  than  $100,000  would  do  through  any  other 
channel. 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


In  accordance  with  section  25,  subdivision  13,  school  laws  of  Neb- 
raska for  1907,  I  have  designated  the  following  high  schools  as  being 
qualified  and  equipped  to  give  normal  training  work  for  the  year 
1907-8: 


SCHOOL  No.  IN 

Albion 

Alliance 

Alma 

Ashland 

Auburn 

Aurora 

Beatrice     

Beaver  City 

Blair 

Blooming-ton 

Blue  Hill........ 

Broken    Bow .............. 

Cambridge 

Central  City 

Columbus 

Crete 

David  City 

Fairbury 

Fairfield 

Fairmont 

Falls  City 

Franklin 

Fremont 

Friend 

Fullerton 

Geneva 

Gothenburg-  . 

Grand  Island 

Harvard 

Hastings 

Hebron 

Holdreg-e 


December  3,  1907. 


CLASS  SCHOOL  No.  IN  CLASS 

11  Humboldt 11 

13  Lexing-ton 34 

10  Lincoln  ........ 24 

14  McCook 15 

13  Madison     12 

21  Minden 15 

36  Nelson 12 

13  North  Platte ;..  24 

18  Oakland     17 

14  Omaha  ... 31 

10  O'Neill 17 

28  Ord .  21 

12  Pawnee  City 20 

12  Plainview 11 

12  Plattsmovuth 17 

25  Randolph 10 

22  Red  Cloud 14 

12  St.  Paul 14 

12  Schuyler 16 

17  Seward 11 

10  Shelton .  .  12 

17  South  Omaha 19 

16  Spencer 10 

18  Stromsburg- 11 

13  Superior 15 

29  Syracuse 10 

20  Tecumseh 10 

22  Wahoo 34 

10  West  Point '. 12 

21  Wisner 15 

17  Wymore   .  12 

44  York 35 

Total,  64  schools 1103 

J.  L.  McBRIEN. 
Superintenden  fc . 


TEXT  OP  THE  LAW. 


TEXT    OF    LAW. 

[Approved  April  10,  1907.] 
SUBDIVISION       13,     SCHOOL      LAWS 

Section  24. — Purpose. — For  the  purpose  of  giving  teachers  an  oppor- 
tunity to  meet  the  requirements  in  normal  training  as  provided  in  sec- 
tions 5548g  and  and  5548h,  chapter  79,  Compiled  Statutes  of  Nebraska 
for  1905,  provision  is  hereby  made  for  such  training  in  the  high 
schools  in  Nebraska. 

Sec.  25 — State  superintendent  designates  high  schools. — The  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  shall  designate  the  high  schools 
in  which  such  instruction  shall  be  given,  distributing  tnem  among  the 
sixty-seven  representative  districts  of  the  state,  as  nearly  as  well  may 
be,  having  reference  to  the  number  of  representatives  in  each,  and  to 
the  location  and  character  of  the  high  schools  selected. 

Sec.  26. — Admission  — Regulations — The  state  superintendent  shall 
prescribe  the  conditions  of  admission  to  the  normal  training  classes, 
the  course  of  instruction,  and  the  rules  and  regulations  under  which 
such  instruction  shall  be  given. 

Sec.  27. — Requirements  governing  approval  of  high  schools  for  nor- 
mal training. — In  approving  a  high  school  for  normal  training  as  con- 
templated in  this  act,  the  state  superintendent  shall,  be  governed  by  the 
following  general  requirements: 

1.  A  high  school  in  order  to  be  approved  for  normal  training  must  be 
a  school  accredited  to  the  University  of  Nebraska. 

2.  At  least  two  teachers  exclusive  of  the  city  superintendent  shall 
give  their  entire  time  to  instruction  in  high  school  branches. 

3.  Normal  training  as  provided  in  this  act  shall  be  given  in  the  elev- 
enth and  twelfth  grades.  Credit  for  such  training  shall  be  given  upon 
the  completion  of  the  prescribed  course  in  normal  training  and  the  reg- 
ular high  school  course  of  study. 

4.  The  course  in  normal  training  shall  be  elective,   and   shall  con- 
sist of  the  three  following  lines  of  study: 

*The  apparent  conflict  between  the  words  "to  be  given  not  earlier 
than  the  tenth  grade",  in.  (a)  of  4, section  27,  subdivisionlS,  school 
laws,  and  the  words  "Normal  training  as  provided  in  this  act  shall  be 
given  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades"  in  3  of  said  section  and  sub- 
division was  caused  by  a  blunder  on  the  part  of  the  clerks  in  the  enroll- 
ing and  engrossing  committees  in  the  legislature  which  passed  this  act. 
But  the  language  in  (a)  of  4  in  not  as  positive  and  strong  as  the  lan- 
guage in  3.  Then  section  26  of  said  subdivision  13  gives  the  state  super- 
intendent authority  to  prescribe  the  conditions  of  admision  to  the  nor- 
mal training  class,  the  course  of  instruction,  and  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions under  which  such  instruction  shall  be  given.  This  department 
will  hold  that  normal  training  as  provided  in  this  act  shall  be  given  in 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades. 


10  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


(a)  A  review  for  at  least  nine  weeks  in  each  of  the  following  sub- 
jects— reading,  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  geography — *to  be  given  not 
earlier  than  the  tenth  grade.  This  work  shall  include  subject  matter, 
underlying  principles  and  methods  of  teaching,  and  should  enable  the 
student  to  approach  the  subject  from  the  standpoint  of  teacher  as  well 
as  that  of  student.  It  shall  be  given  by  well-trainei,  experienced  teach- 
ers. 

(b)  A  study  of  American  history  for  at  least  one  semester  in  the 
eleventh  or  twelfth  grade. 

(c)  At  least  seventy-two  periods  of  professional  training  to  include 
a  study  of  methods,  school  management,  observation,  work,  etc.,  etc.,  to 
be  given  in  the  senior  year  by  the  city  superintendent  of  schools  or  by 
a  member  of  the  high  school  faculty   recommended  by   him  and  ap- 
proved by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

5.  Schools  offering  this  course  shall  have  a  reference  library  of  at 
least  three  volumes  on  each  of  the  following  fields  of  professional  study 
— history  of  education,   principles   of  education,   methods   and   special 
training  in  industrial  education,  including  agriculture. 

6.  In    case    elementary    agriculture    is    not    in    the    regular    course 
of  study  it  shail  be  require  i  in  the  course  in  normal  training. 

7.  Every  tivli  school  approved  for  normal  training  shall  instruct  a 
class  of  net  less  than  ten,  and  every  scholar  admitted  to  such  class  shall 
continue  under  instruction  not  less  than  eighteen  weeks  in  order  to  be 
counted  in  such  class. 

Sec. 28. — Amount  of  state  aid.-The  sum  of  seven  hundred  ($700.00) 
dollars  for  the  biennium  shall  be  paid  from  the  appropriation  provided 
herein  to  each  school  district  in  which  a  class  of  not  less  than  ten  is 
organized  and  instructed  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sec.  29. — Expenses  of  inspection. — The  appropriation  provided  by 
this  act  for  instruction  in  high  schools  of  scholars  in  the  science  and 
practice  of  common  school  teaching  shall  be  deemed  to  include  and 
shall  include  due  inspection  and  supervision  of  such  instruction  by 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  the  expenses  of 
such  inspection  and  supervision  shall  be  paid  out  of  said  appropriation 
on  vouchers  certified  by  the  state  superintendent. 

Sec.  30. — Payment — Secretary  of  board — Warrants. —  The  secre- 
tary of  the  board  of  education  of  each  school  district  meeting  the  rc- 
quirments  for  normal  training  as  herein  provided  shall  on  or  before 
the  last  Monday  in  June  of  each  year  make  a  report,  under  oath,  to  ..he 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  showing  how  many  scholars 
have  met  the  minimum  requirements  for  normal  training  as  contem- 
plated by  this  act.  The  state  superintendent  shall  on  or  before  the  sec- 
ond Monday  in  July  of  each  year  apportion  the  money  earned  to  each 
school  that  has  fully  complied  with  the  requirements  of  this  act.  It 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  state  superintendent  to  certify  the  apportion- 
ment for  the  several  school  districts  of  the  state  to  the  state  auditor, 


SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


who  snail  draw  warrants  on  the  state  treasurer  in  favor  of  the  secre- 
tary of  the  board  of  education  of  the  various  school  districts  for  the 
sums  so  specified  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  It 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  state  treasurer  to  releem  each  warrant  drawn 
on  him  by  the  state  auditor  and  to  remit  the  same  to  the  secretary  of 
the  board  of  education  of  the  proper  school  district. 

Sec.  31 — Appropriation. — That  there  be  and  there  Hereby  is  appro- 
priated out  of  any  moneys  in  the  state  treasury  not  otherwise  appro- 
priated the  sum  of  fifty  thousand  ($50,000)  dollars  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  and  maintaining  normal  training  in  high  schools  for  the 
biennium  ending  March  31,  1909. 

THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

The  high  schools  are  the  schools  of  the  people  and  not  preparatory 
for  higher  institutions.  Let  the  high  school  course  of  study,  where 
it  is  feasible,  be  differentiated  so  as  to  give  our  young  people  the  great- 
est opportunity  possible  to  fit  themselves  for  the  work  they  must  do 
upon  graduation  from  tl:e  high  school  before  they  can  ever  have  the 
means  to  go  to  college  or  university. 

It  will  be  interesting  right  here  to  know  what  becomes  of  our  high 
school  graduates.  Knowing  this  we  may  plan  better  the  work  the 
high  school  should  do.  After  a  careful  study  of  this  question  from 
letters  received  frcm  city  superintendents  of  the  sixty  strongest  high 
schools  in  Nebraska,  we  find  that,  for  the  three  years  preceding 
1905,  600  of  the  graduates  went  immediately  to  college,  800  imme- 
diately entered  business,  including  such  work  as  farming,  banking, 
clerking,  housekeeping,  and  like  occupations,  900  immediately  took 
upon  tuemselvcs  the  responsible  business  of  teaching;  and  all  this  in 
spite  of  the  fact  tliat  these  sixty  of  our  strongest  high  schools  have 
been  straining  themselves  almost  to  the  breaking  point  for  credits  at 
college  or  university. 

Let  us  so  far  as  possible  fit  for  college  and  university.  Let  us 
give  the  young  men  and  the  young  women  who  must  enter  the  busi- 
ness world  immediately  upon  graduation  from  the  high  school  the  best 
preparation  possible.  Let  us  also  train  the  still  greater  number  of 
young  men  and  young  women,  who  will  teach  school  immediately  upon 
graduation,  in  the  art  and  science  of  school  management.  By  such 
training  we  do  not  mean  normal  school  work,  but  sucn  work  as  will 
"best  fit  them  for  the  special  business  of  school  teaching.  We  admit 
the  meagerness  of  such  training  ,  but  it  will  be  infinitely  better  than 
no  training  at  all. 

The  minimum  standard  on  which  an  elementary  state  certificate 
may  be  granted  by  the  state  normal  schools  and  schools  recognized  on 
the  basis  of  the  state  normal  schools  is  a  two  year  high  school  edu- 
cation or  its  equivalent,  plus  twenty-four  weeks'  attendance  in 
said  normal  school  with  creditable  professional  and  academic  work. 


12  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


This  certificate  is  granted  on  grades  earned  at  such  normal  school. 
Normal  training  in  Nebraska  high  schools  as  approved  by  the  act  of 
1907  requires  that  such  training  shall  be  given  in  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  grades.  Credit  for  such  training  shall  be  given  upon  the 
completion  of  the  prescribed  course  in  normal  training  and  the  regular 
high  school  course  of  study.  But  this  must  not  be  construed  to  mean 
that  a  certificate  will  be  granted  to  any  person  completing  the  normal 
training  course  upon  his  or  her  graduation  from  such  high  school. 
Grades  granted  such  graduates  by  any  high  school  are  not  given  any 
consideration  whatsoever  for  a  teacher's  certificate.  Before  any  grad- 
uate of  a  school  recognized  for  normal  training  work  will  be  entitled 
to  receive  a  teacher's  certificate  he  must  pass  the  examination  before 
the  state  .board  of  examiners  for  county  certificates.  With  this  rigid 
requirement  and  the  more  than  one  year's  additional  scholarship  above 
the  minimum  required  at  state  and  approved  normal  schools  for  an 
elementary  state  certificate,  and  with  the  professional  training  given  in 
the  high  schools,  it  is  evident  that  the  standard  of  certification  is  be- 
ing raised  rather  than  lowered  by  the  normal  training  work  in  Neb- 
raska high  schools. 

Bear  in  mind  what  becomes  of  our  high  school  graduates  imme- 
diately upon  finishing  the  high  school  course  of  study.  Commissioner 
Harris  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  less  than  ten  per  cent  of 
those  who  enter  college  and  the  university  finish  the  course.  Then 
remember  that  a  cardinal  principle  of  American  government  is  the 
greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number.  Is  it  not  high  time  then,  for 
us  to  give  some  consideration  in  our  high  school  courses  of  study  to 
the  three-fourths  of  our  high  school  graduates  who  have  heretofore 
been  sadly  neglected?  Let  us  put  our  courses  of  study  in  touch  with 
the  avenues  open  to  young  men  and  young  women  who  graduate  from 
our  high  schools.  In  this  manner  we  can  hold  the  boys  and  girls  for 
graduation  who  would  otherwise  drop  out  before  the  senior  year,  and 
ultimately  more  would  graduate  from  the  high  school  and  more  enter 
the  college,  university  and  normal  school  than  to  hold  to  a  course  made 
dry  and  impractical  with  the  dust  of  ages.  The  American  high  school 
should  be  the  poor  man's  college.  Let  us  make  it  so.  Let  us  demand 
that  the  higher  institutions  re-arrange  their  credits  and  requirements 
more  nearly  along  modern  lines. 

In  this  agitation  over  normal  training  in  high  schools,  it  has  been 
the  policy  from  the  beginning  to  harmonize  it  as  much  as  possible  with 
the  regular  high  school  courses  of  study  and  to  require  few  changes, if 
any.  The  following  course  of  study  recommended  for  free  high 
schools  is  recommended  here  as  the  standard  toward  which  changes 
should  be  made  if  any  are  necessary.. 


STANDARD  COURSE  OP  STUDY.  13 


STANDARD  COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

GRADE    NINE. 
First  Semester  Second  Semester 

Periods  Periods 

Algebra  5  Algebra  5 

English  5  English  5 

Physical  Geography  5  Ancient  History  5 

Latin  or  Bookkeeping  5  Latin  or  Civics  5 

GRADE      TEN* 
First  Semester  Second  Semester 

Periods  Periods 

Plain  Geometry  5  Plane  Geometry  5 

Medieval  History  5  Modern  History  5 

Botany  3  English  2  5  English  2  Botany  3  5 

Caesar  or  English  5  Caesar  or  Agriculture  5 

GRADE  ELEVEN** 
First  Semester  Second  Semester 

Periods  Periods 

Solid  Geometry  or  Reviews  of 

Algebra  5  Reading  and  Geography  5 

Cicero  or  German  5  Cicero  or  German  5' 

Physics  5  Physics  5 

English  History  5  Literature  5 

GRADE   TWELVE 
First  Semester  Second  Semester 

Periods  Periods 

Vergil  or  German  5  Vergil  or  German  5 

Chemistry  2  English  3  5  Chemistry  3  English  2  5 

American  History  and  Civics   5  American  History  and  Civics  5 
Reviews  of  Grammar  and 

Arithmetic  5  Elective  5 

In  making  changes  it  should  be  noted  that  American  history,  if 
properly  taught  in  the  normal  training  course,  will  receive  credit  at 
the  University  of  Nebraska — one  credit  for  one  semester  and  two 
credits  for  two  semesters;  and  likewise  one  credit  for  agriculture  and 
one  credit  for  professional  training  when  given  with  proper  equipment 
and  instruction.  Also  one  credit  will  be  given  for  thorough  work  in 
English  grammar  if  carried  one  semester.  It  must  be  remembered 

*Ten  grade  schools  may  use  English  course  first  year  and  have 
Latin  the  second  year. 

**Eleven  grade  schools  take  American  History  instead  of  English 
History. 


14  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


that  the  question  of  university  credits  in  these  subjects  must  be  taken 
up  directly  and  at  an  early  date  with  High  School  Inspector  A.  A. 
Reed,  Lincoln,  Nebraska. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  changes  in  the  course  of  study 
in  order  that  the  high  school  may  give  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest 
number,  it  will  be  no  unpardonable  sin  to  sacrifice  a  few  credits  at  the 
university.  Professor  Frank  McMurray  of  Teachers'  College,  Col- 
umbia University,  would  omit  much  of  algebra  a3  well  as  Latin  in  the 
high  school  in  order  to  give  more  time  to  studies  more  practical. 
Such  is  the  position  taken  by  President  Pelmly  of  Illinois  State  Nor- 
mal University,  in  his  address  on  The  Modern  High  School  Curriculum 
before  the  department  of  normal  schools  of  the  National  Educational 
Association,  Asbury  Park,  July,  1905. 

The  subjects  required  for  the  normal  training  course,  in  addition 
to  the  regular  high  school  course  of  study,  are  agriculture  (if  not  in  the 
regular  high  school  course  of  study,  arithmetic,  geography,  grammar, 
American  history,  reading,  and  professional  training.  All  these  subjects, 
except  agriculture  and  professional  training  should  be  in  every  high 
school  course  of  study.  The  benefit  to  pupils  of  a  thorough  review  of 
these  so-called  common  branches  during  their  high  school  course  cannot 
be  too  strongly  emphasized,  regardless  of  whether  pupils  are  fitting 
themselves  for  teaching,  for  the  university,  or  for  business.  The  move- 
ment for  normal  training  in  high  scools,  therefore,  should  be  given  a 
hearty  welcome  for  forcing  these  subjects  into  the  junior  and  senior 
years  of  our  strongest  high  schools  on  account  of  their  practical  value 
aside  from  the  profesional  end  in  view.  We  believe  the  time  is  near  at 
hand  when  the  university  will  give  credit  for  any  subject  well  taught 
and  thoroughly  mastered  in  the  high  school  course  of  study. 

It  may  not  be  necessary  to  form  a  special  class  in  every  subject 
required  for  the  normal  training  work.  For  example,  the  normal  train- 
ins  class  may  study  American  history  with  the  regular  class  in  that 
subject  if  the  instruction  meets  the  requirements  as  laid  down  in  the 
normal  training  course  outlined  herein  under  the  act  of  1905.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  review  subjects.  Neither  is  it  necessary  to  have 
one  instructor  do  all  the  normal  training  work.  In  fact,  it  would  be 
better  to  assign  each  subject  to  the  high  school  instructor  who  is  best 
prepared  to  teach  it.  This  is  the  plan  followed  in  Beatrice,  Omaha, 
York,  Superior,  Hastings,  and  other  schools  that  have  been  carrying 
normal  training  work  under  the  1905  law.  It  must  be  observed  that 
the  work  in  professional  training  is  to  be  given  by  the  city  superintend- 
ent of  schools  or  by  a  member  of  the  high  school  faculty  recommended 
by  him  and  approved  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

NORMAL    TRAINING   IN    OMAHA    AND    BEATRICE. 

Reported  by  Principal  A.  H.  Waterhouse  and  Superintendent  C.  A. 
Fulmer,  January,  1907. 


IN  OMAHA  AND  BEATRICE.  15 


Prin.  A.  H.  Waterhouse  of  the  Omaha  schools  writes:  "There 
are  about  forty-five  girls  taking  the  work.  They  have  taken  for  the 
first  term  and  will  continue  to  take  for  the  remainder  of  the  year 
American  history  and  civics.  During  the  larger  part  of  the  first  term 
they  took  arithmetic,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  term  they  have 
taken  grammar,  which  subject  they  will  finish  in  the  first  six 
weeks  of  the  second  term.  The  subject  will  be  followed  for  about 
thirteen  weeks  with  a  study  of  geography.  This  work  will  be  in 
charge  of  Miss  McDonald,  who  for  years  was  one  of  the  best  eighth 
grade  teachers  in  the  city,  and  who  has  proven  herself  to  be  a  strong, 
painstaking  high  school  teacher.  Reading  will  be  in  charge  of  two 
teachers.  The  drill  in  reading,  or  the  academic  part,  will  be  in  charge 
of  Miss  Peterson,  a  graduate  of  the  Chicago  University  and  a  student 
under  Professor  Clark.  Methods  in  primary  reading  will  be  gven  by 
Miss  Clara  B.  Cooper,  director  of  the  training  class,  under  the  direction 
of  the  superintendent.  Agriculture  will  be  in  charge  of  Miss  Stringer, 
head  of  the  biology  department  and  one  of  the  three  best  teachers  of 
botany  in  the  country,  according  to  Dr.  Bergen,  the  text  book  author. 
She  has  recently  specialized  in  this  subject.  She  will  also  have 
charge  of  the  review  in  physiology.  I  shall  have  charge  of  the  theory 
and  art  of  teaching, and  the  wrork  will  consist  of  lectures  and  quizzes, 
together  with  observation  work  in  the  grades  of  the  city,  with  reports 
on  the  visits. 

A  resume: 

1.  Arithmetic   13   weeks,  J.   F.   Woolery,   instructor. 

2.  English   grammar    12    wreeks,    J.    P.   Woolery,    Miss    McDonald, 
instructors. 

3.  Geography  14  weeks,  Miss  McDonald,  instructor. 

4.  American  history  38  weeks,  Mrs.  Atkinson,  Mr.  Bracelen,  Miss 
Davies,   instructors. 

5.  Reading  19  weeks,  Miss  Peterson,  Miss  Cooper,  instructors. 

6.  Agriculture  19  weeks,  Mi«s  Stringer,  instructor. 

7.  Physiology    19    weeks,    Miss    Stringer,,  instructor. 

8.  Theory  and  art  22  weeks,  A.  H.  Waterhouse,  instructor. 

I  am  quite  enthusiastic  over  this  matter  now,  and  feel  that  the 
various  subjects  are  in  charge  of  people  who  will  so  make  them  their 
burden  as  to  work  out  as  good  courses  as  prospective  teachers  can  get 

anywhere  in  the  same  time." 

Supt.  C.  A.  Pulmer  writes  relative  to  this  work  in  Beatrice:  "At 
the  beginning  of  this  school  year  we  established  a  normal  training 
course  in  our  high  school  under  the  direction  of  Miss  Emma  Wilhelm- 
son.  Miss  Wilhelmson  is  a  graduate  of  the  University  of  Nebraska 
and  has  had  experience  as  follows:  two  years  principal  of  the  Broken 
Bow,  Nebraska,  high  school,  and  two  years  as  superintendent  of  the 
Broken  Bow  public  schools.  She  is  assisted  by  Principal '  Garrett,  a 
graduate  of  the  U.  of  N.,  and  who  has  had  five  years  experience  as  high 


16  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


school  instructor,  and  Miss  Maria  P.  Upson,  also  a  graduate  of  the  U. 
of  N.,  and  who  has  had  experience  as  county  superintendent  of  schools, 
and  large  and  successful  experience  as  high  school  instructor.  Super- 
intendent Fulmer  a  graduate  of  the  Nebraska  Wesleyan  University, 
teaches  pedagogy. 

"The  course  is  elective  under  certain  conditions.  None  but  juniors 
and  seniors  who  are  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age  and  who  expect  to 
teach  school  are  eligible.  None  but  seniors  are  permitted  to  take 
pedagogy. 

"The  following  subjects  are  taught  for  a  full  semester,  five  reci- 
tations a  week:  Reading,  physiology,  grammar,  arithmetic,  geography, 
pedagogy,  agriculture,  history. 

"The  work  is  a  deeper  and  broader  study  of  the  subjects  than  is 
given  in  the  lower  grades  ,  as  well  as  a  review,  and  methods  of  teach- 
ing receive  much  attention.  The  classes  visit  the  city  schools  frequent- 
ly and  observe  methods  of  teaching  and  school  management.  These 
students  do  some  sbustitute  teaching. 

"At  this  time  26  junior  girls,  2  senior  boys,  and  15  senior  girls, 
a  total  of  43,  are  enrolled  in  these  classes.  We  are  well  pleased  with 
the  result  so  far." 


HISTORY    OF    SCHEME    IN   NEBRASKA.  17 


History  of  the  Scheme  in  Nebraska. 


This  scheme  was  first  recommended  by  State  Superintendent  W. 
K.  Fowler  in  his  Seventeenth  Biennial  report,  from  which  we  take  the 
following  extracts: 

"I  would  recommend  the  organization  of  training  classes  in  col- 
leges,  normal  schools,   and   such   academies   and   high   schools   as   are 
able  to  meet  the  requirements  for  such  a  class.      These  training  class- 
es should  be  under  the  unrestricted  supervision  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction.      On  or  before  the  first  of  July  of  each 
year,  application  for  appointment  to  instruct  training  classes   should 
be  presented  to  the  state  superintendent  by  the  trustees  of  the  institu- 
tion desiring  such  appointment  on  blank  forms  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose.       No  high  school  should  be  recognized  as  meeting  the  require- 
ments for  a  training  class  except  those  organize!  under  subdivision  14 
or  17  of  the  school  laws  of  Nebraska.      These  applications  should  set 
forth  the  various  facts  or  information  regarding  the  school,  giving  the 
number  of  teachers  employed,  the  enrollment  in  the  different  depart- 
ments,  opportunities  afforded  for  observation  and   practice  work,  the 
names,    qualifications   and    salaries    of   instructors,    etc.      Before   being 
forwarded  the  application  should  be  approved  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent of  the  county  in  which  such  school  is  located.      The  idea  of 
permanancy  is  an  important  factor  to  be  considered  in  the  approval  of 
such  schools,     for  it  s  essential  to  retain,     as  far  as  possible,     the  same 
institutions  year  after   year   and   make   them   educational   centers   for 
this  work.      Certain  specific  requirements  should  be  prescribed  in  the 
regulations  issued  by  the  state  superintendent  as  a  requisite  for  ap- 
proving these  institutions,  among  which  are  the  following:  the  institu- 
tion must  furnish  as  an  instructor  (or  instructors)   a  college  graduate 
or  a  normal  school  graduate  with  three  years'  experience  in  teaching 
since  graduation,  or  the  holder  of  a  professional  state  certificate  with 
three  years'  experience  in  teaching;  all  instructors  of  sucn  classes  must 
be  approved  by  the  state  superintendent;   a  minimum  salary  of   $500 
must      be      paid      instructors;      the      school      must      provide      oppor- 
tunity for  the  members  of  the  class  to  observe  methods  of  teaching  in 
in  the  several  grades  of  common  school  work  and  to  teach  in  such 
grades  under  proper  supervision;  it  must  conduct  prescribed  recitations 
in  the  subjects  belonging  to  the  training  class  course  separate  from  all 
other  recitations;  and  it  must  maintain  a  legal  class,  that  is,  a  class  of 
not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  twenty-five  members  for  each  instruct- 
or for  at  least  thirty-six  weeks  in  the  year. 


18  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


"Candidates  for  admission  to  the  training  class  should  possess  as 
a  minimum  qualification  a  certificate  of  graduation  from  the  eighth 
grade.  They  should  be  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age  at  the  time  of 
entrance.  They  should  also  subscribe  in  good  faith  to  the  following 
declaration:  'We,  the  undersigned,  hereby  declare  that  our  object  in 
asking  admission  to  the  training  class  is  to  prepare  ourselves  for  teach- 
ing, and  it  is  our  purpose  to  engage  in  teaching  in  the  rural  schools 
of  Nebraska  at  the  close  of  such  preparation.  We  pledge  ourselves  to 
remain  in  the  class  during  the  year  unless  prevented  by  illness  or  ex- 
cused by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction.' 

'The  special  mission  of  the  training  class  is  to  provide  the  rural 
schools,  that  are  not  in  position  to  engage  normal  graduates,  with 
teachers  who  are  proficient  in  the  common  branches  and  have  devoted 
at  least  a  year  to  special  preparation — largely  in  professional  work. 
The  province  of  the  normal  school  and  the  province  of  the  training 
class  are,  therefore,  clear  and  distinct.  The  two  are  supplementary 
agencies  and  are  not  to  be  regarded  in  any  sense  as  rivals.  I  am  of  the 
opinion  that  many  training  class  graduates  after  teaching  a  few  years 
will  be  enabled  to  complete  a  course  of  study  in  a  normal  school,  a  step 
impracticable  before  they  gain  a  foothold  from  the  training  class.  The 
normal  school  proper  cannot  supply  the  demand  for  teachers  in  the 
country  districts.  Moreover,  the  graduate  from  the  advanced  normal 
course  is,  as  a  rule,  beyond  their  reach,  owing  to  the  financial  condition 
of  a  large  majority  of  the  rural  school  districts.  The  training  class  is 
the  only  means  of  providing  trained  teachers  for  the  country  schools." 

NORMAL    TRAINING    REQUIRED. 

The  Law  relative  to  normal  training  as  a  requisite  for  securing  a 
first  or  second  grade  county  certificate  is  very  brief,  somewhat  indefi- 
ite,  yet  comprehensive.  It  was  enacted  by  the  legislature  of  1905. 
It  reads: 

On  and  after  September  1,  1907  no  person  shall  be  granted  a  first 
grade  county  certificate  who  has  not  had  at  least  twelve  weeks'  normal 
training  in  a  college,  university,  or  normal  school  of  approved  stand- 
ing in  this  or  in  another  state,  or  in  a  state  junior  normal  school  of 
Nebraska,  or  in  a  high  school  of  Nebraska  approved  by  the  state  super- 
tendent  of  public  instruction  as  being  equipped  to  give  such  normal 
training.  One  or  more  years'  successful  experience  as  a  teacher  may  be 
considered  the  equivalent  of  the  normal  training  required  by  this  sec- 
tion.— Sec.  7,  Subd.  9a,  S.  L.,  1905. 

On  and  after  September  1,  1907,  no  person  shall  be  granted  a  sec- 
ond grade  county  certificate  who  has  not  had  at  least  eight  weeks,  nor- 
mal training  in  a  college,  university  or  normal  school  of  approved  stand- 
ing in  this  or  in  another  state,  or  in  a  state  junior  normal  school  of 
Nebraska  or  in  a  high  school  of  Nebraska  approved  by  the  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  as  being  equipped  to  give  such  normal 


INAUGURATION  OF  PLAN.  19 


training.  One  or  more  years'  successful  experience  as  a  teacher  may 
be  considered  the  equivalent  of  the  normal  training  required  by  this 
section. — Sec.  8,  Subd.  9a,  S.  L.,  1905. 

INAUGURATION   OF   PLAN. 

While  the  statute  empowers  the  state  superintendent  to  prescribe 
all  requirements  for  high  schools  qualifying  for  normal  training,  we 
hesitated  to  inaugurate  a  law  of  such  magnitude  without  the  help 
of  the  school  men  and  women  most  deeply  interested  in  the  results  to 
be  obtained  by  a  proper  application  and  enforcement  of  it.  Therefore 
at  the  Association  of  Superintendents  and  Principals  of  Graded  Schools 
at  its  session  in  October,  1905,  we  requested  that  a  committee  be  ap- 
pointed consisting  of  the  president  of  that  association,  one  member  at 
large,  one  member  from  each  congressional  district,  the  presidents  of 
the  state  normal  schools,  and  the  heal  of  the  department  of  education 
of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  with  instructions  to  consider  the  subject 
of  normal  training  in  the  high  schools  of  Nebraska  in  accordance  with 
the  law,  and  to  report  to  the  State  Teacher's  Association.  The  follow- 
ing committee  was  appointed,  with  the  state  superintendent  as  ex-officio 
member: 

Supt.  E.  L.  Rouse,  Plattsmouth,  chairman;  Supt.  A.  A.  Reed,  Su- 
perior, secretary;  Supt.  W.  H.  Pillsbury,  Palls  City;  Prin.  N.  M.  Gra- 
ham, South  Omaha;  Supt.  E.  B.  Sherman,  Columbus:  Supt.  James  E. 
Delzell,  Lexington;  Supt.  W.  W.  Stoner,  York;  Prof.  G.  W.  A.  Luckey, 
University  of  Nebraska;  Pres.  J.  W.  Crabtree,  Peru  State  Normal; 
Pres.  A.  O.  Thomas,  Kearney  State  Normal;  J.  L.  McBrien,  State 
Superintendent,  Lincoln. 

The  committee  held  three  meetings,  counseled  with  as  many  prin- 
cipals and  superintendents  of  graded  schools  as  possible,  and  called  to 
its  assistance  the  heads  of  departments  of  education  in  colleges,  uni- 
versities and  approved  normal  schools  of  Nebraska.  At  the  meeting 
of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  December,  1905,  the  committee 
made  the  following  report,  which  was  unanimously  adopted: 

On  October  3,  1907,  the  following  institutions  had  been  recognized 
under  the  law  of  1905  as  qualified  and  equiped  to  give  normal 
training  work  on  the  basis  of  high  schools  during  the  school  year  1907- 
8:  Gates  Academy,  Neligh;  Hastings  College  Normal  Department; 
St.  Paul  Normal  and  Business  College;  Spalding  Academy.  Other 
private  schools  may  be  recognized  from  time  to  time  under  the  act  of 
1905.  The  normal  training  work  given  by  these  schools  will  be  sub- 
ject to  the  same  inspection  and  supervision  as  made  of  high  schools. 
Said  schools  could  not  be  recognized  under  the  1907  law  and  entitled 
to  share  in  the  appropriation  of  $50,000,  on  account  of  the  pro- 
hibition in  section  11,  Article  8  of  the  Constitution  of  Nebraska,  rela- 
tive to  the  granting  of  public  funds  to  a  private  or  sectarian  institution. 


20  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


GENERAL   REQUIREMENTS. 

1.  A  high  school  in  order  to  be  approved   for  normal  training 
must  be  a  school  accredited  to  the  University  of  Nebraska,  with  a  four 
years'  course  of  study. 

2.  At  least  three  teachers  exclusive   of  the  city  superintendent 
shall  give  their  entire  time  to  instruction  in  high  school  "branches. 

3.  High    school    graduates    only    shall    receive    credit    for    high 
school  normal  training. 

4.  The   course   in   normal    training   shall   be   elective,    and    shall 
consist  of  the  three  following  lines  of  study: 

(a)  A  review  for  at  least  nine  weeks  in  each  of  the  following 
subjects — reading,  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  geography — to  be  given 
not  earlier  than  the  eleventh  grade.  This  work  should  include  sub- 
ject matter,  underlying  principles  and  methods  of  teaching,  and  should 
enable  the  student  to  approach  the  subject  from  the  standpoint  of 
teacher  as  well  as  that  of  student.  It  should  be  given  by  well-trained, 
experienced  teachers. 

(b)  A  study  of  American  history  for  at  least  one  semester  in 
the  eleventh  or  twelfth  grade. 

(c)  At  least  seventy-two  periods  of  professional  training,  to  in- 
clude a  study  of  methods,  school  management,  observation  work,  etc., 
etc.,   to  be  given  in  the  twelfth  grade  by  the  city  superintendent   of 
schools  or  by  a  member  of  the  high  school  faculty  recommended  by 
him  and  approved  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

5.  Schools  offering  this  course  shall  have  a  reference  library  of 
at  least  three  volumes  on  each  of  the  following  fields  of  professional 
study — history    of    education,    principles    of    education,    methods,    and 
special  training  in  industrial  education,  including  agriculture. 

6.  In  case  elementary  agriculture  is  not  in  the  regular  course  of 
study  it  shall  be  required  in  the  course  in  normal  training. 

OUTLINE  OF  WORK  BY  SPECIAL  COMMITTEES. 

Acting  under  the  authority  vested  in  me  by  the  statute  to  carry 
out  the  details  of  this  law,  special  committees  were  appointed  to  pre- 
pare complete  outlines  on  the  plan  and  scope  of  the  work  in  reading, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  history,  agriculture,  and  professional 
training.  We  give  herewith  the  outlines  adopted: 

READING. 

The  subjects  that  should  be  included  in  a  normal  training  course 
in  reading  fall  naturally  into  two  divisions — those  possessing  culture 
value,  and  those  possessing  value  as  methods.  An  outline  should  be 
arranged  under  these  two  heads,  though  it  must  be  understood  that 
the  subjects  under  the  head  of  culture  must  be  taught  in  such  a  way 
as  to  teach  method  also. 


CULTURE      SUBJECTS.  21 


A — Culture  Subjects. 

I.  Mechanics  of  reading. 

1.  Time. 

a.  Definition. 

b.  Function. 

c.  Causes  of  rapid  time. 

d.  Causes  of  slow  time. 

e.  Examples  of  different  time. 

f.  Methods  pf  teaching. 

2.  Grouping. 

a.  Purpose. 

b.  Relation  to  time. 

c.  What  determines  grouping. 

d.  Influence  of  punctuation. 

e.  Grouping  in  different  grades. 

f.  Practice  in  marking  groups. 

g.  Methods  of  teaching. 

3.  Melody. 

a.  Definition. 

b.  Function. 

c.  Relation  to  emphasis. 

d.  Main  idea. 

e.  New  idea. 

f.  Related  ideas. 

g.  Motive  apart  from  emphasis. 

h.  Definition  and  function  of  key. 
i.  Different  keys. 

High,  low,   medium, 
j.  Definition  and  function  of  inflection, 
k.  Different  inflections. 

Falling,  rising,  circumflex. 
1.   Methods  of  teaching. 

4.  Force. 

a.  How  reading  differs  from  declaiming. 

b.  Function  of  force. 

c.     Definition  and  functions  of  stress. 

d.  Different  kinds  of  stress. 

Radical,  final,  median. 

e.  Methods  of  teaching. 

5.  Quality. 

a.  Function. 

b.  The  different  qualities. 

Bright,  dark,  normal,  gutteral,  aspirate,  orotund. 

c.  How  to  secure  correct  quality. 

d.  Atmosphere. 

e.  Methods  of  teaching. 


22  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


II.  Intrepretative   reading. 

1.  Types  and  figures  of  speech. 

a.   Function   and   definition   of  types. 

b.t  Definition  and  descrimination  of  figures. 

Metaphor,    simle,    allegory,    metonymy,    synecdoche, 
personification,  apostrophe. 

c.  Exercises  for  practice. 

d.  Methods  of  teaching. 

2.  Effects. 

a.  Function  and   definition. 

b.  Classification. 

Incident,   character,   mood,   kind,   degree. 

c.  Exercises  for  practice. 

d.  Methods  of  teaching. 

III.  Literature.    (This  part   of  the  work  should   be  the  last  taken   in 

the  course,   and   is   to   be  adapted   to   the  time  and   the 
needs   of  the  class.      It  can   be   extended      indefinitely.) 
1.  American    authors:      birthplace,    education,    occupation,    char- 
acteristics, and  most  important  works. 

A.  Colonial  period      (1607-1765). 

John   Eliot,    Cotton   Mather,    JONATHAN   EDWARDS. 

B.  Revolutionary   period.      (1765-1789). 

a.  Prose:      BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN,   THOMAS      JEFFERSON, 

James  Madison,  Alexander  Hamilton,  John  Adams. 

b.  Poets:      John   Trumbull,   Francis   Hopkinson. 

c.  Orators:      Patrick   Henry,    Josiah   Quincy. 
.    C.   Period  of  the  Republic.      (1789-1906). 

i.      National   beginnings.      (1789-1815). 

a.  Poets:      Francis   Scott   Key,   Joseph   Hopkinson. 

b.  Biographers:      John    Marshall,    William    Wirt. 

c.  Essayists:    Thomas  Paine,     Noah  Webster. 

d.  Orators:      Fisher  Ames,  John  Randolph, 
ii.   Golden   age.      (1815-1870)  = 

a.  Poets:        WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT,      Joseph  Rodman 

Drake,  Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  EDGAR  ALLEN  POE, 
JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER,  HENRY  WADS- 
WORTH  LONGFELLOW,  Alice  and  Phoebe  Gary. 

b.  Historians:    William    H.    Prescott,    George    Bancroft,    John 

Lothrop  Motley. 

c.  Essayists:      WASHINGTON      IRVING,      RALPH      WALDO 

EMERSON,  JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL,  OLIVER 
WENDELL  HOLMES. 

d.  Humerists:        Charles  F.  Browne,        ("Artemus     Ward") 

David  R.  Locke. 

e.  Orators:        DANIEL   WEBSTER,    Edward   Everett,    Henry 

Ward  Beecher,  Wendell  Phillips. 


CULTURE     SUBJECTS.  2  3 


f.      Novelists:        JAMES  FENIMORE   COOPER,   NATHANIEL 

HAWTHORNE,    Harriet    Beecher    Stowe. 
iii.   Present  age.      (1870-1906). 

a.  Poets:         Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich,      Sidney  Lanier,      Celia 

Thaxter,    Walt   Whitman,    EUGENE    FIELD,    James 
Whitcomb  Riley. 

b.  Historians:        John  Bach  McMaster,  John  Fiske,   Theodore 

Roosevelt,   Edward   Eggleston. 

c.  Essayists:        John  Burroughs,Edward  Everett  Hale,  George 

William  Curtis,     Charles  Dudley  Warner,      Hamilton 
Wright  Mabie. 

d.  Humorists:      Samuel  L.  Clemens        ("Mark     Twain"),  Rob- 

ert  J.    Burdette. 

e.  Orators:        James  G.      Elaine,        William   Jennings  Bryan. 

f.  Biographers:        John  Hay,  Ulysses  S.      Grant,  Julian  Haw- 

thorne. 

g.  Novelists:        William  D.   Howells,   Henry  James,  Frank  R. 

Stockton,     Mary  E.  Wilkins,     Lewis  Wallace,     Helen 
Hunt  Jackson,  Francis  Bret  Harte,  George  W.  Cable. 
Thomas  Nelson  Page,   James  Lane  Allen. 

2.   Selections  for  reading   (with  a  view  to  expression  and  ability 
to  explain  the  thought). 

a.  Didactic  and  moral. 

Elegy  Written  in  Country  Churchyard — Gray. 
The  Chambered  Nautilus — Holmes. 

b.  Oratorical. 

The  Gettysburg  Address — Lincoln. 
Liberty  and  Union — WTebster. 

c.  Dramatic. 

Lochinvar — Scott. 

Barbara  Frietchie — Whittier. 

Paul  Revere's  Ride — Longfellow. 

d.  Narrative  and  descriptive. 

The  Lady  of  Shalott — Tennyson. 

How  They  Brought  the  Good  News  From  Ghent  to  Aix 

— Browning. 
The  Gray  Champion — Hawthorne. 

e.  Humorous. 

A  Curtain  Lecture — Jerrold. 
Whitewashing  the  Fence — Clemens. 
IV.  Pronunciation  and  articulation. 
1.  Pronunciation. 

a.  Use  of  the  dictionary. 

Table  of  contents. 

Symbols. 

Rules. 

How  to  find  words. 

b.  Diacritical  marks. 


24  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


2.  Articulation. 

a.  Importance. 

b.  Methods  of  instruction. 

c.  Exercises. 

Labials. 

Dentals. 

Palatals. 

Nasals. 

Liquids. 

Aspirate. 

Hard  combinations. 

Long  Words. 

B. — Method  Subjects. 
I.   Primary  Reading. 

1.  Features  of  various  methods. 

a.  Alphabet. 

b.  Phonic. 

c.  Word. 

d.  Sentence. 

2.  The  correct  principles. 

a.  The  most  convenient  unit  for  teaching. 

b.  Use  of  sentences  as  early  as  possible. 

c.  Immediate  connection  between  words  and  things. 

d.  Early  phonic  work. 

e.  Using  the  child's  love  of  action. 

3.  Methods  of  teaching  words  and  sentences. 

a.  The  child's  vocabulary. 

b.  The  desire  to  read. 

c.  Teaching  the  first  words. 

d.  What  the  first  word  shall  be. 

e.  Using  the  words  in  sentences. 

f.  Change  from  script  to  print. 

4.  Methods  of  teaching  phonics. 

a.  At  first  separate  from  reading. 

b.  What  sounds  shall  be  taught. 

c.  How  sounds  shall  be  taught. 

d.  Analysis   of  words   into   sounds. 

e.  Sound  symbols,  or  phonograms. 

5.  Outlining  a  course. 

6.  Dramatizing. 

a.  Advantages. 

b.  Methods  of  work. 

II.   Intermediate  and  advanced  methods. 
1.   Classification  of  material. 

a.  Material  of  average  difficulty. 

b.  Material  of  highest  literary  quality. 

c.  Material  of  value  for  information  only. 


ARITHMETIC.  25 


d.  Material  too  difficult  for  oral  reading. 

e.  Material  for  sight  reading. 

2.  Parts  of  the  recitation. 

a.  Drill  in  articulation. 

b.  Recitation  proper. 

Reading. 

Questioning. 

Interpreting. 

c.  Assigning  the  next  lesson. 

Selection. 

Length. 

New  words  and  ideas. 

Work  for  pupils  to  do. 

d.  Supplementary  reading. 

Purpose  and  value. 

Quality. 

Difficulty. 

Methods  of  handling. 

3.  Getting  good  expression. 

a.  Importance  of  getting  the  thought. 

b.  Importance  of  feeling  the  emotions. 

c.  Importance  of  getting  the  right  mental  attitude. 

d.  Use  of  questions. 

e.  Use  of  substitutions. 

f.  Use  of  child's  experience. 

g.  Use  of  child's  imagination, 
h.  Value  of  good  models. 

i.  Necessity  of  careful  assignment, 
j.  Necessity  of  right  material, 
k.  Obstacles. 

The  "reading  tone." 

The  book. 

Difficulty  with  words. 

Difficulty  with  thought  relations. 

Wrong  mental  attitude. 

Influence  of  other  lessons. 

E.  B.  SHERMAN,  Columbus, 

A.  A.  REED,  Superior, 

ALICE  HOWELL,  University  of  Nebraska, 

Committee. 
ARITHMETIC. 

As  the  teacher  takes  up  this  work  let  her  bear  in  mind  these 
things:  First,  a  teacher  can  teach  only  that  which  she  thoroughly 
understands,  and  as  she  is  sending  from  her  classroom  those  who  shall 
without  further  study  attempt  to  teach  this  subject,  let  her  see  to  it 
that  they  have  a  clear  view  of  every  topic  taken  up.  In  the  second  place, 
keep  constantly  in  mind  as  she  prepares  her  work  and  as  she  presents 


26  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


it,  that  no  matter  what  fine  spun  theories  she  may  present,  the  method 
her  pupils  will  use  will  be  the  methods  she  exemplifies  before  them. 
They  will  teach  as  she  teaches  and  not  as  their  grade  teacher  did,  for 
when  they  were  with  the  grade  teacher  they  were  not  old  enough  to 
notice  method.  Let  some  such  plan  of  a  recitation  as  follows  be  con- 
sistently used. 

1.  Assigning  next   day's   lesson,    indicating  difficult  points,   with 

suggestions  as  to  how  to  prepare. 

2.  Reciting  to-day's  lesson,  consisting  of — 

(a)  Testing  individual  preparation  in  various  ways. 

(b)  Correcting  false  and  clearing  up  doubtful  impressions. 

(c)  Drilling  on  essential  points  by  whole  class. 

The  work  of  the  class  should  be  along  two  lines:  Academic  work 
which  must  constitute  the  major  part,  ani  Methods  and  Devices.  The 
committee  do  not  think  it  best  to  separate  this  work  in  detail,  but  yet 
the  teacher  must  so  plan  her  work.  For  convenience  we  shall  here  set 
forth  what  we  think  should  be  done  in  each,  but  do  not  recommend 
that  it  can  be  so  done  in  the  classroom. 

ACADEMIC   WORK. 

In  the  academic  work  one  recitation  each  week  should  be  given 
strictly  to  Mental  Arithmetic.  Select  some  good  text  and  furnish  each 
child  with  one.  Assign  definite  lessons  and  expect  the  same  prepara- 
tion as  you  do  for  written  work.  One  of  the  reasons  that  mental 
arithmetic  has  fallen  into  disrepute  is  because  we  as  teachers  have  made 
what  little  work  we  did  offer  desultory  and  fragmentary.  In  addition 
to  this  regular  period  use  five  or  ten  minutes  of  each  recitation  for 
easy  oral  problems,  bearing  directly  upon  the  topic  under  consideration 
and  introducing  the  topic  for  the  next  recitation.  Since  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  cover  all  classes  of  work  in  the  nine  weeks  given  to  the  sub- 
ject, we  recommend  that  the  following  be  offered: 

1.  Rapid  combination     drills  in  integers,   fractions  and  denomi- 
nate numbers. 

2.  Problems    dealing   with    ordinary    business    transactions    such 
as  small  bills;  involving    fractional  parts  of  one  dollar;  discounts  and 

interest. 

3.  Measurements. 

4.  Ratio,     with  special    reference  to  its    application  in  solution 
of  problems. 

ANALYSIS. — The  present  generation  of  pupils  has  had  no  train- 
ing along  this  line  and  to  this  phase  of  the  work  the  teacher  must 
give  special  emphasis.  The  state  superintendent  declares  that  the  pa- 
pers now  coming  to  his  office  prove  clearly  that  teachers  themselves 
have  no  real  conception  of  mental  arithmetic.  They  are  forced  to 
solve  simple  problems  algebraically.  This  must  not  be  countenanced  in 
mental  arithmetic.  It  would  seem  to  us  that  it  would  be  well  cO  carry 
this  work  almost  daily  by  assigning  one  or  two  problems  just  for 


ARITHMETIC.  27 


analysis.  Have  many  handed  to  the  teacher  in  writing  that  she  may 
see  that  each  pupil  has  a  clear  form  of  analysis  of  the  ordinary  prob- 
lems that  should  be  solved  without  the  aid  of  pencil  and  paper. 

If  no  text  is  at  hand  for  this  work,  we  recommend  Dr.  Brook's"New 
Mental  Arithmetic,"  published  by  Christopher  Sower  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia. Make  a  careful  study  of  his  preface  and  all  suggestions  to 
teachers. 

In  the  written  work  we  think  the  following  topics  should  be  covered 
first,  then  if  time  permits,  others  may  be  added: 

1.  Notation  and  numeration.      Merely  a  rapid  glance  at  the  two 
methods  of  notation,  the  principles  underlying  each  and  the  advantages 
of  the  Arabic  over  the  Roman.     There  should  be  some  drill  in  numer- 
ation of  Roman  Notaton.   Do  not  allow  the  class  to  leave  your  hands 
until  they  habitually  read  the  ordinary  Arabic  correctly.     One-half  of 
the  teachers  in  the  schools  to-day  do  not  know  that  the  "and"  should 
be  used  only  in  reading  MIXED  numbers. 

2.  A  short  review  of  the  fundamental  operations.   The  emphasis 
here  should  be  placed  upon  checking.   Give  problems  that  arise  by  use 
of  the  technical  terms  applicable  to  these  operations.       More  will  be 
said  of  this  topic  under  Methods  and  Devices. 

3.  The  three  special  forms  of  Division — 

(a)  Fractions, Common  and  Decimal. 

(b)  Percentage  and  the  most  important  of  its  applications. 

(c)  Ratio  and  Proportion. 

As  suggested  by  the  arrangement  above,  these  subjects  are  really 
only  different  forms  of  division  and  should  be  treated  as  very  closely 
related.  They  should  be  divested  of  the  mystery  that  is  usually  thrown 
around  them.  Common  sense  methods  should  be  used  in  teaching 
them.  Percentage  should  be  taught  as  a  case  in  fractions.  The  sub- 
jects should  be  carried  along  together  and  thus  prepare  the  would-be 
teacher  to  so  present  them  to  her  classes. 

4.  Measurements. 

(a)  Review  of  common  tables. 

(b)  Actual  use  of  the  ruler;  yard  stick;  measures,  both  dry 
and  liquid;  and  scales,  wherever  possible. 

(c)  Much  work  in  areas  and  capacities — too  much  work  can- 
not be  offered  here.        Plastering,  carpeting,  and  problems 
requiring  number  of  bushels,   gallons,  etc.,   are  invariably 
stumbling  blocks. 

5.  Square  Root  and  its  applications. 

METHODS    AND    DEVICES 

It  is  meant  that  this  work  shall  be  done  in  connection  with  the 
regular  class  work.  Of  necessity  some  time  must  be  given  wholly  to 
this  phase  of  the  subject. 

1.      Teaching  the  fundamental  operations. 


28  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


Pupils  should  leave  this  class  with  a  clear  distinction  between 
counting  and  adding.  That  is  to  say,  they  should  be  given  enough 
work  in  rapid  addition  and  subtraction  to  learn  the  value  of  knowing 
combinations  as  soon  as  they  see  the  figures.  No  better  way  can  be 
suggested  than  to  drill  upon  combinations  of  two  figures;  then  three, 
four  and  five.  Such  columns  should  be  added  at  sight  correctly. 
When  they  find  the  value  of  such  practice,  that  they  will  use  it  in 
their  classes  is  unquestionable.  Methods  of  presenting  and  drilling 
upon  the  multiplication  "tables"  should  be  given  them.  If  not  already 
using  the  "Austrian  method"  of  arrangement  in  division  they  should 
be  taught  it  at  the  start  and  not  be  allowed  to  use  any  other  method 
in  the  class.  By  this  method  we  refer  to  the  placing  of  the  quotient 
above  the  dividend  and  any  digit  in  the  quotient  exactly  above  the 
last  digit  of  the  dividend  used  or  "brought  down".  The  value  of 
checking  subtraction  by  addition,  and  multiplication  and  division  by 
each  other,  should  be  firmly  fixed. 

2.  Visiting  the  grades  to  see  some  ofr  the  strong  teachers  present 
the  most  vital  topics.     This  should  be  done  under  the  direction  of  the 
superintendent   of  the  schools,   that   only   best   methods   be   observed. 
There  should  be  one  hour  spent  in  each  of  the  lower  grades.     After 
these  visits  there  should  be  a  conference,  in  which  the  teacher,  the 
superintendent,  the  class  and  their  high  school  teacher,  may  discuss 
the  recitation  observed.     This  means  that  these  conferences  must  be 
after  hours'  meetings,  but  we  believe  this  will  be  gladly  done  by  all 
concerned. 

3.  Each  pupil  in  the  class  should  have  an  opportunity  to  present 
to  his  classmates  one  or  more  topics.     Assign  this  work  several  days 
in  advance  that  the  pupil-teacher  may  make  careful  preparation  for 
his  maiden  effort.     After  his  part  of  the  work  is  done,  the  teacher  and 
class  should  discuss  the  pupil-teacher's  work. 

4.  There  should  be  a  careful  study  of  the  problem  something 
as  follows: 

(a)  Reading  the  problem. 

(b)  Solving  by  indicated  processes  only. 

(c)  Checking  by   approximate   computations. 

(d)  "Blocking  out"  the  problem. 

(e)  Making  of  problems  in  each  subject,  for  actual  use  in 

the  recitations. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  we  amplify  this  last  somewhat.  We 
mean  by  reading  the  problem  that  the  primal  difficulty  in  problem 
work  is  that  the  child  does  not  read  it.  He  glances  at  it  and  proceeds 
to  do  something  with  pencil  and  thinks  that  he  is  solving  the 
problem.  For  preparation  have  a  great  many  problems  read  carefully 
and  the  recitation  consist  of  merely  telling  how  to  solve;  "b"  is  only  the 
written  form  of  "a."  On  other  days  assign  many  problems  and  require 
the  work  to  be  merely  indicated.  Do  the  mechanical  work  in  the 
classroom.  The  use  of  approximate  results  is  scarcely  ever  used  to 


ENGLISH      GRAMMAR.  29 


any  advantage.  When  a  child  has  read  a  problem  let  him  mentally 
estimate  by  use  of  approximate  numbers  about  what  his  answer  should 
be.  Then  as  he  goes  through  the  process  of  computation  he  will  have 
something  to  tell  him  he  has  made  some  fatal  blunder  in  his  work. 
By  merely  misplacing  a  decimal  point  he  may  have  an  answer  ten 
times  too  large.  Suppose  it  is  one  of  those  in  percentage,  as: A  house 
costs  $850.00.  The  yearly  taxes  are  $18.00,  the  water  $5.00,  repairs 
$13.00.  It  rents  for  $8.00  per  month.  What  per  cent  does  the  owner 
realize  on  his  investment?  The  child  reasons  thus:  He  receives 
$96.00,  but  pays  out  $36.00;  this  leaves  him  $60.00.  Now  if  his  house 
had  cost  him  $800.00  he  would  have  exactly  1%  per  cent,  but  since  it 
cost  him  more  than  $800.00  his  investment  will  pay  him  a  little  less 
than  71/2  per  cent.  By  blocking  out  the  proolem  is  meant  only  the 
sketching  of  the  condition  to  help  visualize  them.  It  will  be  the  in- 
troduction to  the  use  of  the  graph.  We  know  of  nothing  that  will 
help  a  pupil  so  much  as  to  actually  make  his  own  type  problems.  We 
are  satisfied  that  a  mere  trial  of  this  will  establish  its  use. 

We  suggest  that  every  teacher  to  whom  is  assigned  this  very  great 
responsibility  secure  three  of  four  of  the  latest  texts  and  go  carefully 
over  the  prefaces,  suggestions  to  teachers,  and  read  the  Manuals  which 
accompany  all  good  texts.  As  a  help  to  the  teacher  we  suggest  the  fol- 
lowing as  being  good  modern  texts:  Walsh's,  Smith's,  Durell  and  Rob- 
bins',  Ferrel's,  Young  and  Jackson's,  Werner's  (Hall's)  and  McNeill's 
Mental  Arithmetic.  We  recommend  also  that  she  read  three  or  four 
good  books  bearing  directly  upon  this  subject  such  as  "Methods  in 
Written  Arithmetic,"  Cook;  "Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics," 
Smith;  "Psychology  of  Numbers,"  Dewey  and  McClellan. 

E.  L.  ROUSE,  Plattsmouth 

C.  P.   BECK,   Peru  State  Normal. 

A.  L.   CAVINESS,  Pairbury, 

Committee. 

ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

TECHNICAL    ENGLISH. 

I.  Brief  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  English  language. 

II.  The  sentence. 

A.     Analysis  into  elements. 

1.      Classification  of  elements. 

a.  Primary  elements. 

1.  Subject — bare,    complete. 

2.  Predicate — bare,  complete. 

3.  Complement — object,      attribute,      objective. 

b.  Secondary  elements. 

1.  Adjective. 

2.  Adverbial. 

3.  Noun,  or  substantive. 

4.  Connective. 


30  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


5.      (Independent). 
2.     Composition  of  elements. 

a.  Words — derivatives,    prefixes,    suffixes. 

b.  Phrases — prepositional,  infinitive,  participial. 

c.  Clauses — independent,    dependent. 
B.      Classification  of  sentences. 

1.  As  to  structure — 

a.  Simple. 

b.  Complex. 

c.  Compound. 

2.  As  to  use — 

a.  Declarative. 

b.  Interrogative. 

c.  Imperative. 

d.  Exclamatory. 

C.  A  careful  review  of  the  use  of  capitals  and  marks  of  punc- 

D.  Examples,  analysis,  verification — 

The  study  of  the  sentence  is  fundamental.  The  teacher 
should  select  typical  sentences  for  illustration.  She 
should  develop  all  definitions  rapidly  and  simply  as 
with  younger  classes.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  ver- 
ify analysis  and  classification  by  accurate  application 
of  the  definition.  Drill  work  is  essential. 

The  pupils  should  be  required  to  bring  to  class  ap- 
propriate illustrations  of  all  definitions. 
III.      The  parts  of  speech. 

A.  General  stud3r. 

1.  Origin   of   "parts   of   speech"    — Definitions. 

2.  Drill   in   recognizing   parts   of   speech. 

3.  Diagraming  or  graphic  representation  of  the  parts 

of  speech. 

B.  Detailed  review. 

1.      The  Noun. 

A.  Classification. 

1.  Proper. 

2.  Common. 

a.      Class;         b.     Abstract;         c.      Collec- 
tive;       d.     Verbal. 

B.  Modifications. 

1.  Person. 

a.       First;        b.        Second;        c.       Third. 

2.  Number — Singular,  plural. 

a.  Rules  for  formation  of  plurals. 

b.  Application  of  same  in  accurate  drills. 

3.  Gender — Masculine,      feminine,      common, 


ENGLISH      GRAMMAR.  31 


neuter. 

a.  Definitions  and  drills. 

4.     Case — Nominative  or  subjective,  objective, 
possessive. 

a.  Special  drills  in  case  construction. 

b.  Use   some   word    as   doctor  in   all   pos- 
sible constructions  in  each  case. 

c.  Special  drill  exercises  in  possessives. 

C.  Syntax. 

1.   Rules  and  well  selected  illustrations. 

D.  Parsing. 

1.  The  Noun. 

2.  Classification. 

3.  Person. 

4.  Number. 

5.  Gender. 

6.  Case. 

7.  Construction. 

8.  Rule  of  syntax. 
2.     The  Pronoun. 

A.  Classification. 

1.  Personal — simple,   reflexive. 

a.      Special  drills  in   personal  pronouns. 

2.  Demonstrative. 

3.  Interrogative. 

4.  Relative,         or    conjunctive — simple,         com- 

pound, double. 

a.  Special    study    of    relative    pronouns    and 
antecedents. 

b.  Drills  in   case  constructions. 

5.  Indefinite — distributives,    number    and    quan- 

tity, comparatives,  reciprocals. 

B.  Modifications.      (Same  as  nouns.) 

C.  Declension. 

1.  Personal  pronouns. 

2.  Demonstrative    pronouns. 

3.  Relative  pronouns. 
D. .    Syntax. 

E.      Parsing. 

1.  The  pronoun. 

2.  Classification. 

3.  Antecedent. 

4.  Person. 

5.  Number. 

6.  Gender. 

7.  Case. 


32  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS.' 


8.  Constructon. 

9.  Rule  of  syntax. 

3.  The  Adjective. 

A.  Classification. 

1.  Descriptive — common,    proper,    participial. 

2.  Definitive. 

a.  Pronominal — demonstrative,         indefinite, 
interrogative,          distributive,          relative, 
possessive. 

b.  Numeral — cardinals,      ordinals,      fractiotf- 
als,  multiplicatives. 

c.  Article — definite,  indefinite. 

B.  Comparison,  ascending  or  descending. 

1.  Positive  degree.  j  Gi       exercises  in  regular 

2.  Comparative  decree         V  and  Irregular  comparisons. 

I   Adjectives  not  compared. 

3.  Superlative  degree. 

C.  Syntax. 

1.   Rules  and   illustrations. 
D.   Parsing. 

1.  The  Adjective. 

2.  Classification. 

3.  Degree. 

4.  Comparison. 

5.  Construction. 

6.  Rule  of  syntax. 

4.  The   Verb. 

A.  Classification. 

1.  Finite  verbs. 

a.  Form — regular,      irregular,      complete, 
defective,   redundant. 

1.   Drill     on  principal  parts  of  ir- 
regular verbs. 

b.  Use — transitive,    intransitive. 

1.   Drill   in      distinguishing      between 
these  uses. 

2.  Infinite    verbs — infinitives,    participles, 
a.  A  careful  study  with  drill  exercises. 

B.  Modifications. 

1.  Voice — active,   passive. 

a.  Careful   study  of -voice. 

b.  Drill   in   discriminating  between   active 

and  passive. 

c.      Voice    in  relation    to  transitive    and  in- 
transitive uses. 

2.  Mode. 

a., Finite    modes — indicative,    subjunctive. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  33 


imperative,  potential. 

b.   Infinite     modes — (infinitive),        (parti- 
cipial). 

3.  Tense — Present,   past    (imperfect),   future, 

present   perfect      (perfect),      past  perfect 
(plu  perfect),  future  perfect. 

4.  Person — First,  second,  third. 

5.  Number — Singular,  plural. 

C.  Conjugation. 

1.  Regular  verb. 

2.  Irregular  verb. 

a.   Special   study   of   shall   and   will,   may 
and  can,  sit  and  set,  lie  and  lay,  etc 

D.  Syntax. 

1.  Rules  and  illustrations. 

2.  Drills  in  agreement  of  verb  with     various 

kinds  of  subjects. 

E.  Parsing. 

1.  The  verb. 

2.  Class  as  to  form. 

3.  Principal  parts. 

4.  Class  as*  to  use. 

5.  (Voice). 

6.  Mode. 

7.  Tense. 

8.  Inflection  of  tense. 

9.  Person. 

10.  Number. 

11.  Construction. 

12.  Rule  of  syntax. 
5.  The  adverb. 

A.  Classification. 

1.  As  to  use. 

a.  Simple. 

b.  Conjunctive. 

2.  As  to  meaning. 

a.  Time  and  succession. 

b.  Place  and  motion. 

c.  Manner. 

d.  Cause,  purpose,  reason. 

e.  Condition. 

f.  Measure  and  degree. 

g.  Doubt. 

h.   Affirmation  and  negation. 

B.  Comparison    (See  comparison  of  adjectives). 

C.  Syntax. 


34  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


1.  Rules  and  drill  exercises. 
D.   Parsing. 

1.  The  adverb. 

2.  Class  as  to  use. 

3.  Class  as  to  meaning. 

4.  Comparison. 

5.  Construction. 

6.  Rule  of  syntax. 
G.   The  preposition. 

A.  Kinds. 

1.  Simple. 

2.  Complex  (phrasal). 

3.  Compound — one  word,  two  words. 
B,.   Relationship. 

1.  Antecedent. 

a.  .Verb. 

b.  Noun. 

c.  Adjective. 

d.  Adverb. 

e.  Infinitive. 

f.  Participle. 

g.  Phrase, 
h.   Clause. 

C.  Syntax. 

1.  Special  points  to  notice. 

2.  Use  of  words  with  appropriate  prepositions 

following. 

3.  Drills  in  choice  of  appropriate  prepositions. 

D.  Parsing. 

1.  Preposition. 

2.  Relationship. 

3.  Rule  of  syntax. 
7.   The  conjunction. 

A.  Classification. 

1.  As  to  use. 

a.  Co-ordinate. 

b.  Subordinate. 

2.  As  to  meaning. 

a.  Copulative. 

b.  Adversative. 

c.  Correlative. 

d.  Alternative. 

e.  Casual. 

f.  Conditional. 

g.  (Phrasal). 

B.  Syntax. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  35 


1.   Rules    and    illustrations. 
2..  Special  drills. 

a.  Conjunctive   adverbs. 

b.  Distinguish  between  that,  but  that,  but 

what. 
C.   Parsing. 

1.  The  conjunction. 

2.  Class  as  to  use. 

3.  Class  as  to  meaning. 

4.  Syntax. 

5.  Construction. 
8.   Interjections. 

A.  Definition — Distinguish  clearly  from  other  parts 

of  speech. 

B.  Kinds  of  feeling  expressed. 

1.  Joy. 

2.  Sorrow. 

3.  Wonder. 

4.  Wish. 

5.  Praise. 

6.  Surprise. 

7.  Pain. 

8.  Contempt. 

9.  Aversion. 

10.  Expulsion. 

11.  Desire  or  call  for  attention. 

12.  Exultation. 

13.  Mirth. 

14.  Salutation. 

15.  Call  for  silence. 

16.  Dread. 

17.  Languor   or  weariness. 

18.  Desire  for  stop. 

19.  .Parting  thought  feeling. 

20.  Feeling  of  discovery. 

21.  Question  feeling.  (This  list  may  be  changed 

or  added  to  as  the  pupils  understand  the 
subject). 

C.  Drills  in  correct  interpretations  of  interjections. 

D.  How   words   used   as   other  parts   of  speech  be- 

come interjections. 
IV.   Discussion  of  methods. 

1.  Development,  of  definitions. 

2.  Drill  work  to  fix  same  in  mind. 

3.  Order  of  presentation  of  subjects. 

4.  Preparation  of  lesson  plans. 


36  NORMAL   TRAINING    IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS. 


5.   Correction  of  mistakes — oral,  written. 

APPLIED  ENGLISH. 

I.  Composition. 

1.  Right  choice  of  words. 

2.  Clear  expression  of  thought.  , 

3.  Margins  and  paragraphing. 

II.  Business  and  social  forms. 

1.  Common  business  papers. 

a.   Correct  spelling,  punctuation  and  form. 

2.  Letters. 

a.  Correct  form. 

b.  Proper  folding. 
o.  Correct  address. 

J.  W.   SEARSON,   Peru  State  Normal. 
MARGARET  HALL,  Lincoln  High  Sshool, 
R.   H.  WATSON,  Valentine, 

Committee. 

OUTLINES  ON  ENGLISH 
FOB  THE  GRADES  AND  FOB  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

No  better  outlines  on  English     were- ever  given  to  the  public  than 
those  prepared  by  the  special  committees  appointed  by  the     Superin- 
tendents and  Principals'  Association  in  1899.     We  give  these  reports 
here  on  account  of  their  inestimable  value.     There  has  been  a  greater 
demand  for  these  reports  than  for  any  other  publication     ever  issued 
by  this     department.     Every  teacher  and     prospective     teacher     into 
whose  hands  these  reports  fall  should  not  fail  to  master  them. 
REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  ENGLISH 
FOR   THE    GRADES 

The  following  resolutions  were  adopted  by  the  committee: 

1.  To  report  on  the  work  of  the  first  eight  grades  only. 

2.  To  report  upon  the  principles  upon  which  a  high  school  course 
should  be  based,  leaving  the  working  out  of  the  plan  to  a  future  com- 
mittee. 

3.  To  make  no  attempt  to  outline  all  phases     of  English  but  to 
emphasize  certain  important  ones,  leaving  others  to  be  taken  up  later. 

The  purpose  of  the  work  in  English  should  be  (1)  to  secure  free- 
dom of  expression,  (2)  to  secure  correctness  of  expression,  (3)  to  en- 
large the  vocabulary,  (4)  to  teach  pupils  to  connect  both  oral  and 
written  expression  with  thought,  and  (5)  to  correlate  Literature  with 
technical  English  as  a  medium  for  culture. 

These  five  purposes  involve  many  things,  each  of  which  is,  in  it- 
self, of  the  utmost  importance.  With  the  first,  however,  the  primary 
teacher  is  most  concerned.  It  is  easy  to  say,  "enconrage  the  child  to 


ENGLISH      GRAMMAR.  37 


express  himself,  "but  to  do  this  in  the  best  sense  is  an  altogether  dif- 
ferent matter.  To  obtain  freedom  of  expression  there  must  first  be 
created  a  desire  for  expression,  and  herein  lies  the  teacher's  para- 
mount responsibility.  To  select  those  topics  of  conversation  which 
come  within  the  understanding  and  environment  of  the  pupils  requires 
much  tact. 

Every  lesson  in  trie  curriculum  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  language 
lesson,  and  as  such  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  teacher.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  interfere  with  the  thought  or  make  thought  im- 
possible by  untimely  correction  or  criticism.  Those  points  which  need 
correction  should  be  made  note  of  and  later  should  be  drilled  upon 
until  the  use  of  the  correct  form  becomes  a  fixed  habit. 

The  exercises  in  the  elements  of  literature  should  be  both  con- 
structive and  interpretative,  and  as  far  as  possible  constructive,  or  syn- 
thetic, work  upon  each  should  precede  the  analytic,  or  interpretative. 

Your  committee  beg  leave  to  submit  the  following  outline: 

First        Grade. 

I.  Technical  English. 

Drill  in  forms,  based  (1)  on  common  mistakes  and  (2)  on  less 
familiar  forms  that  nee3  to  be  known  for  correct  expression. 

A.  Capitals. — Beginning  (1)  sentences  and  (2)  proper  names;    (3) 
the  pronoun  "I." 

B.  Punctuation. —  (1)    Period,    (2)    interrogation   point,      and    (3) 
other  marks,  as  needed,  given  incidentally. 

C.  Nouns. —  (1)    Possessive    forms    and     (2)    singular    and    plural 
forns  of  sj.uh  i.uuns  as  children  need  to  -.use. 

D.  Pronouns. — Use    (1)    of   personal   pronouns   and    (2)    of   nomi- 
native case  after  forms  of  the  verb  to  be. 

E.  Verbs. —  (1)    Simple   tense   forms,    (2)    compound   tense   forms 
which  children    need  to  use,  and    (3)     correction  of  errors  in 
agreement  of  verb  with  its   subject  in   number. 

F.  Use  of  "a"  and  "an." 

II.  Constructive  English. 

A.  Description. — The    simplest      description    is    merely    a    process 
of  identification  and  tells    (1)    who  or  what  it  is,    (2)    where 
it  is,  and    (3)   what  it  is  doing,  if  animate.     The  higher  form 
of  description  is  -a  process  of  visualization     and  can  be  intro- 
duced gradually  as  the  development  and  condition  of  the  pupils 
warrant.  Have  descriptions  ( 1 )  of  a  pupil  acting  before  the  class, 
(2)  of  two  pupils  acting  before  the  class,   (3)   of  pictures,   (4) 
of  seeds,  leaves,  animals,  weather,  etc. 

B.  Narration. — (1)     Of    a    simple    action      which    has    been    per- 
formed   before   the    class,      (2)    of    experiences    suggested    by 
emotional    words     or    phrases,    and      (3)      of    incidents    which 
will  be  of  interest  to  the  class.        In    (2)    have  pupils  tell  as 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


nearly  as  possible,      (a)  when  it  was,      (b)  where  it  was,      (c) 
what  he  was  doing,  and   (d)  why  he  remembers  it. 

C.  Reproduction. — Selections    read    to    the    Children    to    have    the 
thought  reproduced.      Allow  no  attempt  at  reproducton  of  the 
writer's  language. 

D.  Hints. —  (Effects)  —  (1)    Have   pupils   give   and    interpret   hints. 

(2)  Have  pupils     give  hints  for   teacher      or  class     to  interpret. 
(This  is  important,   for  nere  the  pupil  may  be  taught  to  give 

sufficient  effect  for  the  cause  he  wants  assigned.        He  must  be 
held  to  give  only  logical  conclusions,   also  to  be  charitable  in 
his  interpretations.      Much  of  this  work  will  be  in  the  nature  of 
character  effects). 
III.     Interpretative  English. 

A.  Hints. —  (Effects)  —  (1)   Make  pupils  familiar  with  hints  by  giv- 
great  many  for  interpretation.      (2)  Have  pupils  select  hints  and 
give    the    interpretation.      These    may    be    taken    from    reading 
lessons,  stories  and  incidents.      Very  little  material  can  be  found 
in  the  reading  books  of  this  grade,  but  some  can  be  obtained  by 
careful    selection    and    modification.      (3)     Have    pupils    select 
hints     for    teacher    or  class  to  interpret.       See  note  under  D.  2 
above. 

B.  Emotional  words  and  phrases. —  (1)  Selection  of  emotional  words 

and  phrases  from  lessons,  poems  and  songs.  Material  may  be 
found  in  the  poems  of  such  writers  of  child  verse  as  Lucy  Larcom 
and  R.  L.  Stevenson,  and  in  the  short  ppeins  now  published  in 
all  the  better  grade  of  first  readers. 

Suggestions. —  (1)  Language  work  of  the  first  grade  should  be  entirely 
oral  during  the  first  half  of  the  year.  A  very  little  written  work 
may  be  given  near  the  close  of  the  second  half.  (2)  When  a 
technical  term  is  needed,  give  the  correct  one.  Use  no  terms, 
however,  until  needed.  They  mean  nothing  to  pupils  if  forced. 

(3)  Use  the  word  "sentence"  from  the  beginning,  when  sentence 
is  meant.      Avoid  the  incorrect  use  of  the  word"story".      (4)See 
that  the  pupils  of  all  grades  observe  the  laws  of  selection,  com- 
pleteness, method,  symmetry,  and  unity,  so  far  as  applicable  to 
their  age  and  development.    (5)   The  technical  work  of  the  first 
five  grades  is  based  upon  the  idioms  of  language,  and  requires 
the  incidental  presentation  of  many  facts  of  form  and  construc- 
tion.     This  is  incidental  to  the  pupil  only,  and  requires  careful, 

thoughtful  planning  and  presentation  by  the  teacher.      It  must  be  by 
no  means  accidental. 

Second        Grade. 
I.      Technical  English. 

A.      Capitals. —  (1)  Review  work  given  for  First  Grade  aoi1.   (2) teach 
the  use  of  capitals  in  titles  and  poetry. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  39 


B.  Punctuation. —  (1)     Review    punctuation    marks    given    in    first 
grade.    (2)  Quotation  marks,   (3)  the  apostrophe  to  denote  pos- 
session, and   (4)   the  comma  in  such  sentences  as  children  use. 

C.  Nouns. —  (1)    Possessive  forms,  both  singular  and  plural.      (2) 
Plural    number    formed    regularly    by    adding    "s"    or"es"    and 
such  irregular  plurals  as  children  need  to  use.  (3)  Study  spelling 
of  such  words. 

D.  Pronouns. — Work  as  laid  out  for  the  First  Grade  reviewed  and 
extended. 

E.  Verbs   (1)  Review    and  extend    work    laid    out  for    first    grade. 

(2)  Much  practice  in  making  the  verb  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number.  (3)Teach  the  correct  use  as  to  meaning  of  such  verbs 
as  teach  and  learn,  got  and  have,  lie  and  lay,  sit  and  set,  etc. 

P.     Adjectives. —  (1)   The  correct  use  of  such  descriptive  adjectives 
as  the  children  use.   (2)  Comparative  forms  where  needed. 

G.      Sentence. — Teaching  also  subject  and  predicate. 
11.   Constructive  English. 

A.  Description. — (1)    Review     and  extend     each  point     suggested 
for  First  Grade.      (2)  Visualization  of  persons. 

B.  Narration. — Review  and  extend  each  point  suggested  for  First 
Grade. 

C.  Reproduction. — See  that  the  pupil   has  the  thought  first,   then 
expresses  it  in  clear,  concise  language  of  his  own.   Reproduction 
from  memory  drill  belongs  elsewhere. 

D.  Hints. — Review  and  extend  work  as  suggested  for  First  Grade. 

E.  Types. — Animals,    flowers,    kinds    of    weather,    seasons,    etc.,    as 
types. 

JII.      Interpretative  English. 

A.  Hints— Work  as  planned  for  First  Grade  reviewed  and  extend- 
ed.     There  is  more  material  found  in  the  late  readers  for  this 
grade     than   for  the     preceding.        Such     stories   as   "Helping 
Hands"   and   "Androclus   and   the  Lion"    are  valuable.      Others 
can  be  adapted. 

B.  Emotional  words  and  phrases. — Extend  work  laid  out  for  First 
Grade.  Parts  of  "Hiawatha's  Childhood,"   "Seven  Times  One," 
and  similar  poems  can  be  used.      Abundant  material  is  to   be 
found  in  all  the  late  second  readers. 

Suggestions. — Most  of  the  composition  work  for  this  grade  should  be 
oral.  That  which  is  written  should  be  carefully  planned  and 
watched  by  the  teacher.  See  that  the  first  written  work  is 
correctly  done.  Avoid  the  formation  of  bad  habits  by  obtaining 
careful,  thoughtful,  and  correct  expression  at  the  beginning. 

Third     Grade. 
l       Technical  English. 

A.    'Capitals.  —  Use  of  capitals  as  given  for  first  and  second  grades 
and  olhor  uses  as  needed  for  all  written  work. 


40  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


B.  Punctuation. —  (1)  Review  marks  given  for  preceding  grades.  (2) 
Apostrophe  in  contractions.      (3)Period   in   abbreviations.    (4) 
Hyphen  in  the  division  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

C.  Nouns. —  (1)   Careful  work  in  all  points  noted  for  first  and  sec- 
ond grades.      (2)  Common  and  proper  nouns. 

D.  Pronouns. —  (1)  See  work  for  preceding  grade.      (2)  Teach  cor- 
rect use  of  this,  that,  these,  those  and  them. 

E.  Verbs. —  (1)  See  outline  for  preceding  grades.      (2)  Teach  use  of 
may  and  can,  shall  and  will. 

F.  Adjectives. —  (1)    See  preceding     outline.      (2)    Much     drill     in 
the  use  of  comparative  and  superlative  forms. 

G.  Adverbs. —  (1)    Study  use  of  adverb  with  verb.        (2)    Correct 
common  errors  in  use. 

H.     Prepositions. —  (1)  Teach  use  of  at  and  to.      (2)  Correct  errors 

in  the  use  of  prepositions. 
I.      Sentence. —  (1)    Subject,   predicate   and   object.    (2)    Declarative 

and  interrogative. 
II.  Constructive  English. 

A.  Amplify  all  points  suggested  in  outline  for  Second  Grade. 

B.  Give  frequent  exercises  in  letter  writing  by  assigning  work  in 
any  of  the  elements,  to  be  prepared  in  the  form  of  a  note  or  a 
letter.      This    should   be   continued   throughout   the   grades,    so 

.  that  no  pupil  above  the  third  grade  shall  be  allowed  to  remain 

in  ignorance  of  some  approved  form  of  a  letter. 
iIII.     Interpretative  English. 

A.  Hints. — Extend   work   of   Second   Grade.     Select  material   from 
readers    and    elsewhere    that    sets    forth    concretely    character- 
consequences  without  telling  -the  child  what  he  should  be  al- 
lowed  to   infer   for    himself,     such   as     "The   General    and   the 
Corporal"  and  "The  Boy  Who  Tried."   Many  selections  can  be 
made   usable   by    cutting    out    the    moralizing   paragraphs. 

B.  Emotional     words      and      phrases. — Extend     work      of     Second 
Grade.      "The  Death  of  the  Flowers"  and  "Hiawatha's  Sailing" 

.  are  valuable  for  study.     Draw  on  readers  for  all  available  ma- 
terial. 

C.  Figures. — Careful  work  on  metaphors  selected  from  the  better 

grade  of  reading  material,  based  upon  previous  study  of  types. 
See  outline  of  Constructive  English,  Second  Grade. 

Fourth  Grade. 

I.      Technical  English. 

A.  Capitals. —  (1)    Review  work  of  the  preceding  grades  and    (2) 
give  all  uses  which  are  needed  in  reading  and  writing. 

B.  Punctuation. —  (1)    Note  outlines  of  preceding  grades  and    (2) 
teach  use  of  exclamation  point. 

C.  Nouns. — Extend  work  as  laiil  out  for  preceding  grades. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


D.  Pronouns. —  (1)    See      preceding      outlines.         (2)         Train    in 
a  correct  use  of  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns. 

E.  Verbs. —  (I)   See  preceding  outlines.      (2)    Teach  correct  forms 
of  irregular  verbs  to  be  used  with  have,    has,    or  had.     Teach 
correct  use  of  contracted  forms  such  as  don't,  doesn't,  etc. 

F.  Adjectives. —  (1)    Extend  work  of  preceding  grades.    (2)    Study 
formation     of  comparative     and  superlative  degrees  by  use  of 
"more"  and  "most,"  also    (3)    such  irregular  adjectives  as  are 
in  common  use. 

G.  Adverbs. — Extend  the  work  as  outlined  for  Third  Grade. 
H.      Prepositions. — Extend  work  as  outlined  for  previous  grades. 

I.      Sentence. —  (1)     Review    work    for    Third    Grade.      (2)       Teach 

exclamative  and  imperative  sentences. 

J.      Synonyms. — otudy  some  of  those  in  most  common  use. 
K.      Word-buiiding. — study  words  whose  opposites  are  formed    (1) 

by  affixes  and  (2)  by  a  different  word. 

II.  Constructive  English. 

A.  Review  and  amplify  all  points  in  outline  for  previous  grades. 

B.  Condonsation  and  elimination  of  "padding." 

III.  Interpretative  English. 

A.  Hints. —  ^i)   As  given  for  preceding  grades.      (2)    Teach  pupils 
to    discriminate    hints    which    show  effects     of  character  and 
mood.   "How   Little   Cedric    Became   a   Knight"    and    "The   En- 
counter with  tae  Panther"   contain  good  material. 

B.  Emotional    words    and    pnrases. — Amplify     work  of  preceding 
grades.      Good   material  can  be  found  in  all  readers. 

C.  Figures. —  (1)    Extend  work  as  outlined  for  Third  Grade.      (2) 
Personification  studied  similarly. 

Suggestions. — By  the  end  of  the  fourth  year,  the  work  in  English 
should  be  nearly  equally  divided  between  written  and  oral  ex- 
ercises. Pupils  of  this  grade  should  be  able  to  give  fairly  good 
oral  and  written  compositions  on  any  points  suggested  in  the 
outline.  All  written  work  should  show  correctly  used  capitals, 
punctuation,  paragraphing,  and  spelling,  within  the  limits  of 
previous  instruction.  Do  not  expect  long,  finished  products. 
Short  exercises  at  frequent  intervals  are  better  for  both  pupil 
and  teacher  than  those  of  greater  length. 

1  Fifth      Grade. 

I.      Technical  English. 

A.  Capitals. —  (1)    Review  work  of  previous  grades.      Drill  on  the 
use     (2)   with  quotations  and     (3)   with  names  of  months  and 
days. 

B.  Punctuation. —  (1)     Review    work    of   previous    grades.      Teach 
use  of  comma    (2)    in  connection  with  short  quotations  infor- 
mally introduced  and    (3)   in  series  of  words  in  the  same  con- 


42  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


struction.      (4)    Hyphen  in  common  words.      (5)    Use  of  caret. 
(6)   Dash  before  name  of  author. 

C.  Nouns. — Extend  work  of  preceding  grades. 

D.  Pronouns. —  (1)   Review  work  of  preceding  grades.      (2)   Teach 
use  of  each  and  every,  either  and  neither. 

E.  Verbs. —  (1)    Review   work  of  preceding  grades,      especially   ir- 
regular   forms.      (2)    Teach    use  of  progressive    form;    use   of 
complete  form  (3)  to  show  the  condition  of  the  subject  and  (4) 
to  show  that  the  subject  receives  the  action;      (5)    the  agree- 
ment of  verb  with  subject. 

F.  Adjectives. —  (1)    Review   work   of  preceding   grades.      (2)    Ex- 
tend work  in  comparison.      (3)    Teach  use  of  each  and  every, 
either  and  neither. 

G.  Adverbs. —  (1)    Review  wrork  of  preceding   grades.      (2)    Teach 
use  with  adjectives  and  other  adverbs.      (3)   Comparison.      (4) 
Correct  the  use  of  double  negative. 

H.  Prepositons. —  (1)  Extend  work  of  preceding  grades.  (2) 
Distinguish  "in"  and  "into"  as  to  meaning  and  use. 

I.  Conjunctions. — Drill  in  the  use  of  and,  like,  and  as,  either  and 
or,  and  neither  and  nor. 

J.      Sentence. — Drill  on  work  as  outlined  in  preceding  grades. 

K.      Synonyms.- — StucLy  extended. 

L.      Word-building. —  Simple  exercises. 

II.  Constructive  English.      Exercises  in 

A.  The  visualization  of  persons  continued. 

B.  Exercises  in  simple  visualization  of  places. 

C.  Combinations  of  visualization  of  places  and  persons. 

D.  Character  effects  continued. 

E.  Combination  of  visualization  of  persons  and  character  effects. 

F.  Study  of  emotional  words  and  phrases  continued. 

G.  Studies  in  types  continued. 

H.      Simple  fact  statements  to  be  told  in  an  interpretative  way. 
I.     Effects  of  incident  discriminated. 

J.  The  theme  of  pictures,  simple  stories,  and  poems  to  be  used  as 
the  basis  of  written  lessons. 

III.  Interpretative  English. 

All  elements  as  previously  presented  in  the  constructive  exercises 
are  to  be  made  the  basis  of  drill  in  connection  with  the  regular 
reading  lessons.  The  pupils  are  to  be  sent  to  the  library  and 
elsewhere  for  additional  material. 

Sixth      Grade. 
I.      Technical  English. 

A.  Capitals. —  (1)    Review  work  of  preceding     grades.   Teach     use 

(2)    with  titles  and  abbreviations  and    (3)    with  names  of  the 
Deity. 

B.  Punctuation. —  (1)    Review    work    of    preceding   grades.      Teacb 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  43 


use   (2)    of  period  after  Arabic  figures  numbering  paragraphs, 

(3)  of  colon  before  formal  enumeration  or  quotation,    (4)    of 
semicolon     before     as,    viz.,    etc.,  (5)      Comma    with    interposed 
elements,    (6)   to  denote  the  omission  of  a  word,  and   (7)   with 
series  of  any  kind,    (8)    Double    quotations.        (9)     Dash  after 
side-headings.        (10)   Parentheses.        (11)  Apostrophe  to  form 
plural  of  letters,  characters,  etc. 

C.  Nouns.— All  classes  and  inflections  and  the  four  principal  uses. 

D.  Review   use  of  verbs,     pronouns,    adjectives,     adverbs,   preposi- 
tions and  conjunctions  as  outlined  in  previous  grades. 

E.  Drills  in  abbreviations  of  titles  and  in  contracted  forms.   Extend 
list. 

P.      Extend  work  in  synonyms  and  word-building. 

II.  Constructive    English. 

A.  Extend  work  in  all  elements  as  outlined  for  Fifth  grade. 

B.  Combine    visualization    of    places    and    persons    with    character 
effects. 

C.  Make  special  study  of  mood  effects. 

D.  Combine  mood  effects  with  other  elements. 

III.  Interpretative  English. 

Study  of  all  elements  in  connection  with  regular  reading  lesson. 
Special  studies  of  masterpieces  of  literature,  such  as  "To  a 
Waterfowl,"  "Tanglewood  Tales,"  "The  Kentucky  Cardinal," 
and  other  available  material. 

Suggestions. — The  exercises  in  constructive  English  in  the  Fifth 
and  Sixth  Grades  should  be  made  brief  and  should  occupy 
about  half  the  time  given  to  English  each  week.  Much  of  it 
should  be  in  the  form  of  letter  writing. 

Seventh     Grade. 

I.  Technical   English.  ' 

A.  Capitals. —  (l)Review    work    of    preceding    grades.     (2)     Teach 
use  with  names  of  things  personified. 

B.  Punctuation. —  (1)    Review   work    of    preceding    grades.      Teach 
use  of  comma   (2)   with  opposite  elements  and    (3)    at  the  end 
of  a  long  subject  when  necessary  to  make  the  meaning  clear. 

(4)  Dash  to  show  sudden  change  of  thought  and    (5)    at  the 
end   of  the  line  to   show  that  the   sense  is   incomplete.         (6) 
Brackets. 

C.  Review  noun  and  verb,   as  previously  studied. 

D.  Complete  the  study  of  noun,  pronoun,   and  adjective. 

E.  Extend    work    in    synonyms,    word-building,    abbreviations,    and 
contractions. 

F.  Simple  sentence  analysis. 

II.  Constructive  English. 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


A.  Extend    work   as    outlined    for   previous    grades,    enlarging   es- 
pecially upon  visualization  of  places. 

B.  Exercises  in  the  visualization  of  groups. 
III.     Interpretative  English. 

Where  readers  are  used,  the  material  can  be  found  in  them  for 
much  of  the  work,  through  supplementary  studies  will  be  of 
assistance,  such  as  "Evangeline,"  Chapters  from  "Cuore," 
"How  They  Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent  to  Aix,"  "The 
Twenty-third  Psalm,"  etc. 

Eighth  Grade. 

I.  i  echnical  English. 

A.  Review  use  of  capitals  with  summary  of  rules. 

B.  Punctuation. —  (1)  Review  work  of  preceding  grades.     Use  (2) 
of  colon  in  compound  sentences;    (3)  of  semicolon  in  compound 
sentences;   of  comma   (4)   with  transposed  elements,    (5)    with 
independent  elements,   (6)   in  compound  sentences;    (7)   a  quo- 
tation  within   a   quotation   of  single  marks;    (8)    dash   instead 
of  parentheses.      (9)  A  summary     of  all  rules     of     punctuation, 
with  illustrations,  to  be  used  as  a  review. 

C.  Review    etymology    in    connection    with    summary    of    rules    of 
syntax. 

D.  Complete  study  of  verb,   adverb,   preposition   and   conjunction. 

E.  Complete  study  of  analysis  of  sentences. 

F.  Extend   work   in   synonyms,    word-building,    abbreviations,    and 
contractions. 

G.  A  brief  history  of  the  English  Language  to  be  given. 

II.  Constructive  English. 

A.  Extend  work  as  outlined  in  previous  grades. 

B.  Combine  the  study  of  groups  with  all  other  elements. 

C.  Studies  in   force. 

D.  Discriminative  use  of  kind  and  degree  effects. 
Suggestions. —  The  time   given   to   Constructive   English   is   twenty 

minutes  daily  in  the  Seventh  Grade  and  fifteen  minutes  in  the 
Eighth. 

III.  Interpretative    English. 

Most  schools  must  depend  upon  outside  sources  for  material 
for  much  of  this  work,  owing  to  the  general  absence 
of  suitable  readers  in  the  eighth  grade.  The  most  valuable  ma- 
terial for  studying  effects  in  this  grade  is  "The  Bonnie  Brier 
Bush"  which  can  be  obtained  in  inexpensive  form.  "The 
Famine"  is  valuable  for  the  study  of  figures  and  suggestive 
words.  "The  Bunker  Hill  Oration"  may  be  used  for  force. 
"The  Chambered  Nautilus"  is  appreciated  by  the  pupils  for 
the  study  of  the  theme.  "Snow  Bound,"  "Among  the  Hills", 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


"Songs  of  Labor,"  and  "The  Lady  of  the  Lake"  are  good  gen- 
eral studies. 
Respectfully  submitted, 

A.  A.  REED, 

CELIA  BURGERT, 

A-H.  WATERHOUSE,  [>  Committee 

J.  F.  HOSIC, 

W.  L.  STEPHENS, 

REPORT  OP  COMMITTEE  ON  ENGLISH  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

The  course  here  given  is  a  continuation  of  the  outline  prepared 
for  the  grades  last  year,  and  it  embodies  the  same  fundamental  pur- 
poses. All  work  in  English  should  secure  freedom  and  accuracy  of 
expression  and  an  appreciation  of  the  ennobling  things  in  literature. 

The  most  careful  guidance  is  needed  along  each  line  mentioned. 
The  teacher  should  strive  for  freedom  in  writing.  Do  not  limit  or 
cripple  the  student  by  prescribing  a  theme  of  a  particular  length. 

The  committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  pupils  should  be  asked, 
or  at  least  advised,  to  buy  their  literature  books. 

The  committee  would  recommend  that  a  minimum  of  four  hours 
per  week  the  first  year,  and  three  hours  per  week  the  three  following 
years,  be  given  to  the  subject  of  English  in  the  high  schools. 

Your  committee  begs  leave  to  submit  the  following  report: 

Ninth     Grade. 

I.  Technical  English. 

1.  Grammar   study.        A   review   of     principles   and      inflections 

adapted    to    the   needs    of   the   class.        Grammar    for    use 
use  rather  than  discipline  is  intended. 

2.  Capitalization. 

3.  Punctuation. 

4.  Abbreviations. 

5.  Forms   of   composition. 

a.  Heading. 

b.  Margin. 

c.  Indention  of  paragraphs. 

d.  Folding  and  indorsement. 

6.  Marks  for  correction  of  essays. 

7.  Review  of  ordinary  letter  forms. 

8.  Etymology  as  occasion  arises. 

9.  Orthography   and    orthoepy   incidentally. 

10.  Tense  Formation. 

II.  Constructive  English. 

1.  Extend  the  work  as  outlined  in  the  preceding  grades. 

2.  Description.     A   study   of   individual   and   class   visualization. 

SUGGESTED  EXERCISES. — As  an  example  of  individual 


4:6  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


visualization,  ask  the  student  to  visualize  some  friend  or 
prominent  character  in  town;  as  an  example  of  class  vis- 
ualization, he  may  describe  briefly,  by  the  lAse  of  class  char- 
acteristics, a  policeman  and  a  doctor.  Many  exercises  of  a 
similar  nature  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  teacher. 

3.  Individual  and  class  characterization. 

4.  Visualization  of  places  continued. 

5.  Visualization  of  interiors. 

SUGGESTED  EXERCISES. — In  connection  with  this  topic 
the  student  may  be  asked  to  write  several  themes  in  which  the 
visualization  of  the  room  will  suggest  the  character  of  the 
occupant. 

These  exercises  should  not  be  given  until  the  student  has 
written  effective  descriptions  of  several  rooms. 

6.  Mood  study  continued  and  extended. 

SUGGESTIONS. — As  occasion  arises,  the  work  in  tech- 
nical English  should  be  done  in  connection  with  the 
constructive  work. 

In  all  written  work,  consider  natural  and  easy  expression 
of  chief  importance. 

It  is  also  advised  that  every  written  exercise  be  carefully 
corrected  by  the  teacher,  and  then  returned  to  the  pupil. 
III.     Interpretative  English. 

1.  Continue  the  study  of  poetic  and  emotional  words.  Explain  the 

the  various  classes  and  have  the  student  bring  examples  of 
each  class.  Then  begin  "Evangeline,"  emphasizing  the 
study  of  words.  See  Dr.  Sherman's  "Elements  of  Literature," 
and  "The  North-Western  Journal  of  Education,"  for  Sep- 
tember and  October,  1896. 

2.  Continue  the  study  of  "effects"  of  kind  and  degree. 

3.  Study  of  types. 

4.  Prose,      poetic,   and    emotional    phrases.         A    study    of    the 

borrowed  elements  in  figures   and  figurative  phrases. 

SUGGESTIONS.— Have  the  student  bring  examples,  such 
as  "sighing  treetops,"  and  ask  him  to  explain  the  derivation 
and  force  of  the  borrowed  element  in  each  example.  Apply 
this  work  to  the  selections  studied  during  the  year. 

5.  A  more  extended  study  of  the  elements. 

SUGGESTIONS. — Selected  poems  from  Tennyson,  such  as 
"The  Lotus  Eaters,"  "The  Passing  of  Arthur"  and  "Sir 
Galahad"  may  be  used  very  effectively  in  the  study  of  figures, 
phrases,  and  words. 

6.  The  following  points  should  be  carefully  studied   in   connection 

with  all  books  assigned:  (a)  the  author's  meaning;  (b)  the 
central  thought  or  purpose;  (c)  is  the  interest  of  the  book 
mainlv  in  the  characters  or  in  the  incidents? 


ENGLISH      GRAMMAR.  47 


"Marmion,"  "The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth,"  "Sohrab  and 
Rustum,"  and  "The  Lady  of  the  Lake"  may  be  studied  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  work  already  outlined,  but  none  of 
these  selections  furnish  sufficient  material  for  the  study  of 
characterization:  "Captains  Courageous"  might  be  used  for 
the  study  of  effects  in  this  grade. 
7.  Selections  for  reading  at  home. 

Each  student  will  select  from  this  list  and  report  as  directed 

a.  Hawthorne:      The   Gray   Champion,      The      Gentle      Boy, 
Endicott  and  the  Red  Cross. 

b.  Longfellow:      Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 

c.  Poe:      The   Goldbug,   The  Purloined   Letter. 

d.  Dickens:      A   Christmas   Carol. 

e.  Scott:      The  Talisman,  The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

f.  Cooper:      The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  The  Spy. 

g.  Hughes:      Tom  Brown's  School  Days. 
li.      Franklin:      Autobiography. 

i.      Hale:      The  Man  without  a  Country. 
j.      Dickens:      Nicholas  Nickleby. 
k.      Dodge:      Hans  Brinker. 

I.  Stevenson:      Treasure   Island. 
m.      Bayard   Taylor:      Lars. 

II.  Warner:      Being  a  Boy: 

o.      Eggleston:      The   Hoosier  Schoolmaster. 

p.      Dana:      Two   Years   before  the   Mast. 

q.      Porter:      Scottish  Chiefs. 

r.     Dickens:      The  Old  Curiosity  Shop. 

s.     Eggleston:      American    War    Ballads. 

t.      Irving:      Life  of  Washington. 

u.      de  Amicis:      Cuore. 

Tenth      Grade. 
I.     Technical  English. 

In  this  grade  attention  should  be  given,  as  the  needs  of 
the  pupils  demand,  to  the  points  mentioned  in  the  Ninth 
Grade.  While  instruction  in  technical  matters  should  now 
be  incidental,  it  should  by  no  means  be  neglected.  A  list 
of  common  errors  in  English  is  here  given  for  the  use  of 
both  teacher  and  pupil  in  the  revision  of  exercises. 

1.  Misplaced  modifiers. 

2.  Lack  of  concord. 

a.  Subject  and  verb. 

b.  Adjective  and  noun. 

c.  Pronoun   and  antecedent. 

d.  Subject  and  complement. 

c.      Principal  and  subordinate  verb. 

3.  Mistakes    of   case. 


4:8  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


4.      Mistakes  of  mood. 

K.     Misuse  of  shall  and  will. 

6.  Adjective  or  adverb. 

7.  Conjunctions  and  prepositions 

8.  Reference    of   pronouns. 

9.  Unrelated   participles. 

10.  Double  negatives. 

11.  Wrong  verb  forms. 

12.  Improprieties  and  barbarisms. 
H.      Constructive   English. 

1.  Conversation   that  characterizes. 

SUGGESTED  EXERCISE. — Ask  the  student  to  introduce 
two  or  more  characters  into  his  theme,  and  make  the  reader 
understand  the  character  of  each  by  means  of  the  conver- 
sation. 

2.  Conversation    that   shows    mood. 

T.      Visualization   and  characterization  of  a  crowd. 

4.  Associational  themes. 

SUGGESTED  EXERCISES. — Describe  a  place  in  such  a 
manner  that  a  stranger  would  wish  to  see  it.  Describe  a 
place  or  a  room  in  such  a  manner  that  the  associational 
feelings  are  sad.  Many  exercises  of  a  similar  nature  may 
be  assigned. 

5.  Character  through  mood. 

6.  Write   character   sketches,    selecting    as    subjects   the   various 

characters  found  in  "Elaine." 

7.  During   this    and    the    following   year    the    fundamental    prin- 

ciples of  good  composition  should  be  systematically  presented. 
The  main  stress  should  be  laid  upon  numerous  short  themes 
and  occasional  longer  ones.  Paragraph  themes  in  descriptions 
of  persons,  places,  and  objects  within  the  experience  or  ob- 
servation of  the  pupil  may  be  continued.  Point  of  view, 
selection  and  arrangement  of  details,  vividness  and  accuracy 
should  receive  attention. 
III.  Interpretative  English. 

"Tales     of  a     Traveler,"        "The  Vision   of   Sir  Launfal," 
"Twice  Told  Tales,"  and  "Elaine,"  and  other  Idylls  constitute 
representative    selections    for    study    in    this    grade.         These 
books  or  their  equivalents  may  be  used. 

Study  "Elaine,"  emphasizing  the  work  on  effects.  See 
articles  in  "North-Western  Journal"  for  1897. 

Written  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  student  should  be 
required. 

Excellent  results  may  be  obtained  by  reading  "Elaine" 
and  several  of  the  other  Idylls,  omitting  as  deemed  advisable, 
the  first  selections  mentioned. 


f  UNIVERSITY 
V^&i 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  4.9 


Examples  of  the  mode  of  association  may  be  found  in 
"The  Tales  of  a  Traveler."  This  book  will  furnish  also  some 
material  for  the  study  of  the  story.  The  mode  of  mystery 
may  receive  attention  here. 

The  author's  meaning,  the  central  thought  or  purpose, 
and  the  selection  and  order  of  details,  should  be  studied  in 
connection  with  all  boohs  assigned  for  this  grade. 

Selections  for  reading  at  home. 

Irving:      The   Alhambra,    Selections    from   the    Sketch    Book. 
Whittier:      Snowbound,   Among   the   Hills. 
Goldsmith:      The    Deserted    Village. 
Hawthorne:      The  Old  Manse,  The  Old  Apple  Dealer,   House 

of  Seven  Gables,      The  Marble  Faun. 

Lowell:      An  Indian  Summer  Reverie,  The  Oak,  Beaver  Brook 
Bryant:      The  Forest  Hymn  and  others. 
Pee:      The    Fall    of    the    House    of    Usher,      The    Domain    of 

Arnheim. 

Blackmore:      Lorna  Doone. 

Stevenson:      Travels  with  a  Donkey,  An  Inland  Journey. 
Smith:      A  White  Umbrella  in  Mexico. 
Allen:      A  Kentucky  Cardinal. 
Brown:      Rab   and   His   Friends. 
"Ouida":      A  Dog  of  Flanders. 
Wordsworth:      Michael,  Hart-Leap  Well. 
Byron:      Childe  Harold. 
Kipling:      The  Jungle  Book. 
Warner:      A-Hunting  of  the  Deer. 
Wallace:      Ben  Hur. 

Eleventh      Grade. 

I.  Technical  English. 

The  directions  for  work  in  the  Tenth  Grade  should  here 
be  followed.  Attention  should  also  be  given  to  polite 
correspondence  and  to  forms  for  official  and  other  business. 

II.  Constructive  English. 

1.  Subordination. 

SUGGESTED  EXERCISES: — Write  themes  introducing 
conversation  between  two  people,  and  make  prominent  the 
mode. of  subordination. 

Many  kinds  of  exercises  under  this  topic  may  be  assigned. 

2.  Interpretative  writing. 

SUGGESTED  EXERCISES. — Write  short  themes  in  which 
such  prose  statements  as  "it  is  winter"  are  expressed  in  the 
feeling  way. 

3.  Negative  characterization. 

SUGGESTION.—  The  student  should  introduce  first 
character  hints  which  give  the  reader  a  mistaken  impression. 


50  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


Hints  which  give  the  reader  a  mistaken  impression.      Hints 
which      establish     the    true      character    should    then    follow. 

4.  Write  short  original  story. 

5.  In  this  grade  an  attempt     should  be     made  to  enlarge  upon 

and  complete  the  study  of  fundamental  principles  begun  in 
the  preceding  grades. 

SUGGESTION: — Narrative,  descriptive,  themes,  plot, 
character,  and  mood.  One  element  should  be  considered 
at  a  time  and  many  short  exercises  be  prepared  and  discussed. 
A  theme  of  some  length  may  be  undertaken  near  the  close 
of  the  year.  These  themes  should  be  carefully  criticised  and 
revised  in  the  light  of  all  previous  work. 

The  note     books  in  the  study  of     literature  should  be  re- 
garded  as    part   of   the   composition   work,    and    time   should 
be  allowed  for  their  careful  preparation. 
Jll.      Interpretative  English. 

The  following  selections  contain  material  suitable  for  the 
Eleventh  Grade:  Browning,  Selected  Poems;  Maclaren, 
"Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush";  Chaplin,  "Eli,"  "The 
Village  Convict."  If  time  permits,  one  of  Tennyson's  Idylls, 
or  its  equivalent,  may  be  read.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
selections  be  studied  in  the  order  mentioned  above. 

The  stories  of  "Eli"  and  "The  Village  Convict"  will 
furnish  excellent  material  for  a  study  of  visualization, 
character  and  mood.  They  may  also  form  a  basis  for  the 
study  of  story  construction. 

It  is  assumed  that  topics  suggested  before  will  be  here 
kept  in  mind,  and  adapted  to  the  particular  selection  of  prose 
or  verse  in  hand.  The  setting,  the  structure,  the  elements 
used,  the  plot,  and  the  central  thought  will  suggest  topics  in 
addition  to  those  already  mentioned. 

Selections   for   home  reading: 
Goldsmith:      The  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 
Dickens:      David  Copperfield,  and  Oliver  Twist. 
Thackeray:      Vanity  Fair. 
Mulock:      John  Halifax. 

Scott:      Heart  of  Midlothian,   Old   Mortality. 
Howells:      The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham. 
Wilkins:      A  New  England  Nun. 
Barlow:      Irish   Idylls. 
Stevenson:      Master  of  Ballantrae. 
Barrie:      A  Window  in  Thrums. 

Twelfth    .Grade, 
j.     Technical  English. 

1.      Intensive  work  in  grammar.        Six  or  eight  weeks  should   bo 
given  to  this. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  51 


II.  Constructive  English. 

1.  Exposition.      Occasional    themes    should    be    written    outside 
of    class.      Personal    consultation    and    class    criticism    should 
constitute     important     features  not  only  of  this     particular 
topic  but  also  of  all  the  work  in  English. 

2.  Argument.      Nature    and    purpose.      Kinds.      Order.      Climax. 

3.  Actual  practice  in  debate. 

4.  The  constructive  work  of  the  Eleventh  Grade  should  be  con- 

tinued. 

III.  Interpretative  English. 

The  minor  poems  of  Milton,  "Paradise  Lost,"  I  and  II, 
"Silas  Marner,"  and  "Macbeth,"  or  their  equivalents  are 
recommended  as  suitable  books  for  the  work  in  this  grade. 

The  Play  of  "Macbeth"  should  be  studied  with  Dr.  Sher- 
man's analytic  questions.  A  note-book  should  be  used  by 
the  student,  and  written  work  handed  in  at  each  recitation. 

"Silas  Marner"  will  furnish  material  for  the  study  of  the 
novel.  If  time  permit,  the  minor  poems  of  Milton,  and 
"Paradise  Lost,"  I  and  II,  may  be  taken  up  for  additional 
study. 

The  committee  thinks  it  best  that  all  the  interpretative 
work  of  the  Twelfth  Grade  should  be  given  consecutively  in 
the  first  semester;  and  that  the  technical  and  constructive 
English  should  occupy  the  second  semester. 

SUGGESTION. — Those  high  schools  that  do  not  continue 
the  work  beyond  the  Eleventh  Grade  may  omit  some  of  the 
selections  mentioned  in  the  Ninth,  Tenth,  and  Eleventh 
Grales,  and  select  for  the  last  year's  work  Macbeth  or  other 
desired  topics  from  the  work  as  outlined  for  the  Twelfth 
Grade. 

Selections  for  home  reading: 
Emerson:      Friendship,   Self-Reliance. 

Wordsworth,   Coleridge,   Byron,   Keats,   Shelly,    Burns:        Se- 
lected poems. 

Arnold:      On  the  study  of  Poetry,   Culture,   and  Anarchy. 
Holmes:      The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table. 
George  Eliot:      Romolo,   and  Adam  Bede. 
Addison:      Sir  Roger  de  Coverley. 
Ruskin:      Of  Kings'   Treasuries. 
Lamb:      Essays  of  Elia. 
Tarbell:      Abraham   Lincoln. 
Hawthorne:      Our  Old  Home. 
Shakespeare:      The   Tempest,   A   Midsummer   Night's    Dream, 

As  You  Like  It,  Twelfth  Night. 
Ollivant:      Bob,   Son  of  Battle. 


52  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


Thompson:      Wild  Animals  that  I  Have  Known. 
Scott:      Ivanhoe. 
Kingsley:      Westward  Ho! 

The  Committee  is  indebted  to  Mr  J.  F.  Hosic  for  the  Home  Read- 
ings, and  the  work  on  technical  English. 

WILL  S.  HEITZMAN,  Chairman. 
MYRTLE  I.  WHEELER, 
HERBERT  O.  SUTTON. 
GEO.  N.  PORTER, 
KATE  McHUGH, 

Committee. 
GEOGRAPHY. 
AIM. 

1.  The  Normal  course  should   be  made  a  review   of  grade  and 
high  school  geography,  emphasizing  method   of  teaching  the  subject. 

2.  The  instruction  should  be  offered  by  persons  who  are  trained 
in  geography  teaching. 

3.  The  teaching  should  be  made  concrete  rather  than  abstract. 
Field,  experimental  and  observational  work  should  be  employed  to  bring 
out  geography  facts  and  types. 

4.  Of  the  nine  weeks,  two  weeks  should  be  devoted  to  general 
principles  of  geography;   two  weeks  to  a  comparative  study  of  conti- 
nents; two  weeks  to  the  United  States;  and  three  weeks  to  Nebraska, 
including  exercises  in  home  geography. 

OUTLINE    OF    COURSE. 

I.     General  discussions  to  show  what  geography  is;    its  place  in 
the  schools;  and  how  it  is  related  to  other  subjects.    (Time  3  weeks.) 

1.  The  View  Point — Definition  of  subject.      Why  classed  as  one 
of   the   five   essentials?     What   are   geography   facts?     What   are   the 
purposes  of  geography  instruction?        How   is   the  subject   related,  to 
nature  study?      To  Agriculture?      Botany?      Zoology?      Reading?      Ex- 
plain the  definition,  "Geography  is  the  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home 
of  man  and  of  life  in  general."      How  does  the  earth  influence  man? 
What  is  meant  by  the  terms  "relation,"   "control,"   "type?"   Give  ex- 
amples to  illustrate  each. 

2.  Parts  of  the  Earth  or  the  Spheres  of  Influence — Study  each 
sphere  in  general,  giving  its  position,  form,  mass,  extent,  physical  and 
chemical  character.     Compare  the  atmosphere  and  the  water  sphere 
(Hydrosphere)  in  motion,  compressibility,  elasticity,  resistance  to  mo- 
tion, etc.     Can  you  see,  weigh,  and  hear  each?      How  are  the  atmos- 
phere, hydrosphere  and  lithosphere  related?     To  what  sphere  do  liv- 
ing things  belong?        In  what  sphere     are  most  plants  and   animals 
found  and  why? 

3.  Geographic  Influences — Define.      How  are  animals  related   to 
air,  to  water  and  to  the  ground?     As  shown  by  its  structure  to  what 


GEOGRAPHY.  53 


spheres  is  a  duck  adapted?  A  fish?  In  what  ways  does  the  atmos- 
phere influence  (1)  crops,  (2)  animals  and  (3)  man?  Note  some  of 
the  effects  of  sunshine,  temperature,  wind  and  rainfall.  Why  do  we 
study  these  weather  and  climatic  elements  in  geography?  What  rela- 
tions exist  between  mineral  industries  and  the  rock  formations?  Be- 
tween topography  and  travel?  Drainage  and  disease?  Soil  and  ag- 
riculture? Harbors  and  cities?  Make  an  outline  to  show  the  princi- 
pal geographic  influences.  Which  of  these  affect  people  most? 

4.  Departments  of  Geography — Compare;   give  relations  of  each 
to  the  other. 

A.  Physical — Define,  facts  of 

B.  Industrial — Define,   facts  of 

C.  Commercial — Define,   facts   of 

D.  Political — Define,  facts  of 

5.  Geography  by  Grades. 

A.  Home      geography — Purpose.         Relation      to    nature 
study.     Why    important?     What    does    it    include?     How 
taught?     Enumerate   the   home   geography   relations. 

B.  The  Primary  Text — When     introduced?      Relation     to 
home   geography.      Foreign   relations   in   geography.      How 
use  the  text? 

C.  The  advanced  text.     When  introduced?     Why   follow 
Primary  text?        Do  we  spend     too  much     time     on  the 
primary   or  advanced  texts?     Why  cover  about  the  same 
ground   in   each?     In   what   respects   do   the   texts   differ? 
How  use  text? 

D.  Regional      Geography — Define.      Purpose.      How    like 
home    geography?      Why    follow    advanced    text? 

6.  Study   of   Geography   Texts.    Compare   the   Prye,   Dodge,    Nat- 
ural and  the  Tarr  and  McMurray  series,  noting  in  each  the  illustra- 
tions,  maps,   exercises,    questions,    style,   plan,   continuity   of   plan,    se- 
quence of  subjects  and  the  fitness  of  each  book  in  its  series  for  the 
grades  for  which  it  was  written.     Which  series   emphasizes  physical 
features  most?     The  Industrial?     Which  is  best  adapted  to  country 
schools?     To  town  and  city  schools?     Which  is  written  most  from  the 
view  point  of  children?     Of  the  geographer?  Which  is  easiest  taught? 
Which  gives  the  best  notion  of  geography  as  a  whole? 

7.  Illustrative    Materials    and    Methods    of    Instruction.      Give    a 
few  periods  to  the  use  of  specimens  with  which  to  illustrate  the  forms 
of  industries;    the  handling  of  globes;    making  and  interpretation   of 
maps,  and  to  field  excursion. 

II.     Comparative    Study    of    Continents.      (Time    two    weeks.) 
Study  and  compare  continents  as  to  position,   form,   area,  coast 
line,  mean  annual  temperature,  heat  belts,  wind  systems,  rainfall,  re- 
lief, drainage  and  topography,  vegetation,  native  animals,  people,  po- 


54:  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


litical    divisions,    governments,    resources,    products,    industries,    com- 
mercial centers,  methods  of  transportation  and  trade  routes. 

III.  Geography  of  the  United  States.      (Time,  two  weeks.) 

Use  Russell,  Dodge,  Powell,  Prye,  and  Tarr  and  McMurry  as 
references.  Follow  outline  in  Complete  Geography  by  Tarr  &  McMur- 
ry or  in  Dodge's  Advanced  Geography.  See  library  references.  Do 
laboratory  work  with  weather  and  topographic  maps,  climatic  charts, 
wall  maps,  etc. 

IV.  Geography    of    Nebraska    and    Home    Geography.         (Time, 
three  weeks.) 

Use  topographic  maps,  geological  atlases  and  folios,  and  illus- 
trative material.  Text — Geography  of  Nebraska.  Follow  outline  of 
text.  Discuss  method  of  teaching  text  and  subject.  The  questions  at 
the  end  of  each  chapter  of  text  will  serve  to  bring  out  geographic  re- 
lations and  as  a  basis  of  home  studies.  Make  frequent  use  of  library 
and  of  McMurray's  Excursions  and  Lessons  in  Home  Geography. 

EQUIPMENT. 

Secure  weather  maps  from  Section  Director  of  Weather  Bureau, 
Lincoln;  Climatic  Chart  from  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Topographical   Maps — See    directions   in   Geography   of   Nebraska. 

Topographic  Atlases,  1,  2  and  3,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Wash- 
ington,D.C.  These  are  25  cents  each,  except  No.  3,  which  is  50  cents. 

Scotts  Bluff  Folio,  25  cents;   U.,  S.  Geological  Survey. 

Physical  Maps. 

Political  Maps. 

Blank  Maps  of  United  States  and  of  Nebraska. 

Drawing  Materials. 

Geologic    Atlases    28,    30,    70,    74,    81,    83,    87,    88    and    112.      The 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C.        Send  for  prices. 

Thermometer. 

Maximum  and  Minimum  Thermometer. 

Rain  Gauge. 

Mineral  and  rock  specimens  with  which  to  show  processes,  in- 
dustries, structure  and  soils. 

Laboratory  work  may  be  done  according  to  either  of  the  follow- 
ing laboratory  guides:  Brigham,  D.  App.  &  Co.;  Trafton,  Ginn  &  Co.; 
Wright,  Field  Laboratory  and  Library  Manual  in  Physical  Geography; 
Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Grover,  Laboratory  Manual  in  Physical  Geogra- 
phy. 

LIBRARY    REFERENCES. 

These  should  be  in  the  general  teacher's  library,  where  they  may 
be  consulted  by  the  Normal  class. 

The  Journal  of  Geography,   $1.50  per  year,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and 


GEOGRAPHY.  55 


the  National  Geographic  Magazine,  $2.50  per  year,  Hubbard  Memorial 
Hall,  Washington,  D.  C.,  are  indispensable. 

The  following  are  recommended  for  reference: 
Adams'   Elc.    Commercial    Geography — D.   Appleton    &    Co. 
Barbour,  Vol.  1,  Nebraska  Geological  Survey   (out  of  print) — Ne- 
braska Geological  Survey. 

Brigham,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History — Ginn  &  Co. 

Brigham,  Geology — D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Carpenter,    Geographical    Readers — American    Book   Co. 

Chamberlain  &  Salisbury,  Geologic  Processes,  Vol.  1 — Henry  Holt 
&  Co. 

Condra,   Geography  of  Nebraska — University  Pub.   Co. 

Davis,  Elementary  Physical  Geography — Ginn  &  Co. 

Davis,   Elementary   Meteorology— Ginn   &  Co. 

Davis-King-Collie,  Government  Maps  in  Public  Schools — H.  Holt 
&  Co. 

Dodge,  Series  of  Geographies — Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

Dryer,  Physical  Geography — American  Book  Co. 

Prye,  Series  of  Geographies — Ginn  &  Co. 

Gannett-Garrison-Houston,  Commercial  Geography — American 
Book  Co. 

Gilbert  and  Brigham,  Introduction  to  Physical  Geography — D. 
Appleton  &  Co. 

Hitchcock,  The  Louisiana  Purchase — Ginn  &  Co. 

King,  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography — Lee  &  Shepard. 

McMurray,  Special  Methods  in  Geography — Macmillan  Co. 

McMurry,  Excursions  and  Lessons  in  Home  Geography— Mac- 
millan Co. 

Mill,   etc.,   International   Geography— D.   Appleton   &    Co. 

Norton,  Elements  of  Geology — Ginn  &  Co. 

Parker,  How  to  Study  Geography — D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Powell,  etc.,  Physiography  of  the  United  States — American 
Book  Co. 

Redway,   New   Basis  of  Geography — Macmillan   Co. 

Ries,  Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States — Macmillan  Co. 

Russell,  North  America — D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Semple,  American  History  and  Its  Geographic  Conditions  — 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Tarr,  New  Physical  Geography    (Revised) — -Macmillan  Co.     , 

Tarr  and  McMurry,  Series  of  Geographies — Macmillan  Co. 

The  World  and  Its  People    (the  series) — Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

The  larger  schools  may  be  able  to  secure  a  complete  set  of  the 
Twelfth  Census  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Commerce  mid 
Labor,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Water  Supply  Papers  and  other  bulletins  published  by  the  United 


56 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


States  Geological  Survey  are  valuable  references  and  free,  when  not 

out  of  print. 

G.  E.  CONDRA,   University  of  Nebraska, 

E.   C.  BISHOP,  Deputy  State  Superintendent, 

H.  E.  BRADFORD,   Aurora, 

N.  A.  BENGTSON,   Peru  State  Normal, 

A.   J.    MERCER,  Kearney   State  Normal, 

Committee. 

UNITED  STATES      HISTORY. 

AIM      AND      SCOPE. 

I.  The  object  to  be  kept  in  mind  should  be  to  prepare  young  peo- 
ple to  teach  United  States  History  in  the  rural  schools.  Those  who  can 
teach  history  well  in  the  rural  schools  can   teach  it  in  any  grade  in 
the  town  school.      But  the  reverse  is  not  true.      The  course  should  be 
for  those  mature  enough  to  teach,  others  will  not  get  the  best  results 
from  it.     The  course  should  be  given  in  the  senior  year,  and  be  built 
upon  previous  history  work  done  in  the  high  schools  and  grades. 

II.  What  the  teacher  of  United     States     History     in     the     rural 
schools  should  know  before  attempting  to  teach  the  subject: 

A.  He  should  know  the  aim  or  purpose  of  the  subject — the 
purpose  of  the  subject  as  a  science,  and  the  reason  for  its  be- 
ing in  the  course  of  school  instruction.     Unless  he  has  definite 
ideas  on  this,   his  work  is  liable  to  be  aimless,  scattered,   and 
result  in  no  definite  accomplishment. 

1.  He  should  know  the  definition  of  history  and  under- 
stand it  thoroughly — so  thoroughly  that  he  can  continually 
test  his   work   by   it,    and   point  out   its   applicaion   as   the 
study  proceeds. 

2.  He  should    know,    too,   that   in    our   country,    where 
the    welfare,    stability,    and    efficiency    of    the    government 
rests  primarily  on  the  intelligence  of  the  citizens,  the  most 
important  part  of  this  intelligence  is  derived  from  the  study 
of  history. 

B.  He  should  have  a  good  grasp  of  the  facts  of  the  portion 
of  the  history  he  expects  to  teach.      This  means  the  whole  of 
American  history,   including  the  biographies  of  the  prominent 
characters. 

1.  Unless   he  has   this   knowledge   before   beginning  to 
teach — 

a.  He  will  be  overwhelmed  with  the  daily  prepa- 
ration of  lessons. 

b.  He   will    go    wrong   continually    in    guiding   the 
student,  because  he  has  not  himself  a  clear  view   of 
the  goal  to  attain. 

2.  This   does   not   mean   that   he   should    know   all   the 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  57 


minutiae  of  that  history,  but  the  broad  lines  of  de- 
velopment, the  important  features,  the  prominent  charac- 
ters and  events,  and  should  be  able  to  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  our  principal  institutions,  movements,  and 
activities.  He  should  be  able  to  give  briefly  a  comprehen- 
sive outline  of  the  whole  subject. 

C.  The  teacher   of   history   should   be   a   student   of   history 
and  as  a  student  he  should  know  how  to  proceed — 

1.  To  find  materials — the  sources  for  his  study. 

2.  To  collect  and  sift  facts,  and  estimate  their  relative 
'worth. 

3.  To  group  them  into  logical  form. 

4.  And  to  present  his  accumulated  facts  in  what  seems 
to  him  a  truthful  account  of  the  subject  considered,  based 
on  the  evidence  at  his  command. 

5.  He    should    know    something    of    the    value    of    the 
works  he  has  at  his  command,  or  has  access  to.      He  should 
become  ecquainted  with  at  least  a  few  of  the  better  au- 
thors,  know   the   difference   between   the   original   sources 
and  the  secondary  writers,  and  the  peculiar  value  of  each. 

D.  The  teacher  of  history  should  have  some  knowledge  of 
the   relative  importance   of  the  various  portions  of   history   as 
found  in  the  text  or  outline,  so  that  he  may  wisely  select,  if 
for  some  reason     his  class  should  not  be  able  to     complete  the 
book  or  outline,  or  course  prescribed. 

E.  The  teacher  of  history  should  have  some  knowledge  of 
the  work  that  may  be,     and  ought  to  be,     done  in  the  various 
grades.     He  needs  this  knowledge,  not  only  in  planning  the  de- 
tails of  regular  course  work,  but  in  order  to  arrange  harmoni- 
ously  the   lower   grade   reading,   supplementary   work,   etc.,   so 
as  to  produce  the  best  results  when  the  regular  study  of  his- 
tory is  taken  up  later. 

F.  The  would-be  teacher  of  history  should  have  some  defi- 
nite ideas  of  assigning  lessons,  directing  pupils  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  their  lessons,  and  hearing  recitations. 

G.  He  should  know  that  he  will  probably  not  find  things 
ideal  in  the  school  which  he  engages  to  teach,  but  that  he  must 
fit  his  plans  to  the  pupils  and  equipments  until  he  can  induce 
or  produce  changes  for  the  better.  f  While  this  is  a  general  cau- 
tion it  should  be  made  especially     in  the  History  department, 
where  so  commonly  conditions  are  far  from  what  they  ought 
to  be. 

III.      What  the  teacher  of  history  should  feel — 

A.      The  subject  of  history  is  the  most  important  of  all,  so 
far  as  making  intelligent  citizens  of  a  free  democratic  govern- 
ment is  concerned. 


58  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


B.  He  must  have  a  real  desire  to  teach  the  subject  well  if 
he  is  to  accomplish  results. 

C.  The  lessons  from  the  study  of  history  are  numerous  and 
valuable,   but  it  rests  largely  with  the  teacher  to  make  these 
apparent. 

IV.     What  the  course  should  include — 

A.  A  consideration  of  the  aim  and  purpose  of  history. 

1.  The  definition— not  a  formal  definition,  but  a  con- 
crete realization   of  its  meaning.      Emphasis  to   be  placed 
on  the  evolutionary  nature  of  history,     its  unity,     and  the 
relation  of  events  to  each  other;   interpretation  of  events 
and    movements    should    be    especially    emphasized    in    this 
normal  course. 

2.  An    amplification    of    the   definition    and    purpose    of 
the  subject  in  the  classroom  work. 

B.  A  careful  study  of  the  main  features  of  American  history 

1.  This  should  not  be  a  mere  review  or  a  substitute  for 
the  regular  course,  but  a  new  course  so  planned  for  each 
school  that  the  student  will  receive  a  distinct  addition  to 
his  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  United  States. 

2.  So  much  here  depends  on  the  teacher,  the  pupil,  and 
the  previous  work  accomplished,   that  a  definite,  specified 
course  might  result  in  disappointment  so  far  as  results  are 
concerned;    however  your  committee  ventures  the   follow- 
ing recommendations: 

a.  The  subject  should  be  taught  by  outline,  rather 
than  by  following  a  single  text-book;    other  methods 
are   approved,    as   the   "multiple   text"    plan;    also   the 
use  of  a  single  text  with  assigned  readings  from  the 
sources  and  more  advanced  narrative  works.      All  the 
recognized  approved  methods  may  be  used,  and  ought 
to  be  explained. 

b.  "The  Outline  of  American  History  by  the  New 
England  Historical  Teachers'  Association,"  should   be 
taken  as  a  standard,  but  not  slavishly  followed. 

c.  The  use  of  texts  faulty  either  in  fact  or  method 
of  procedure  should  be  avoided. 

d.  Since  the  whole  of  American  history  cannot  be 
covered    in   one   semester's   work,    only    the    most   im- 
portant points  should  be  considered  previous  to  1763: 
(1)    A  very  brief  study  of  old  world  conditions  that 
led  to  the  movement  may  be  made;       (2)    territorial 

claims  by  the  various  European  nations  should  be 
noted — extension  and  extinction  followed  in  general 
outline;  (3)  colonial  development  previous  to  1750 
should  be  confined  mainly  to  Massachusetts,  Virginia 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY  59 


.  and  Pennsylvania — and  here  only  the  principal  insti- 
tutional features  should  be  noted;  (4)  the  French- 
English  rivalry,  1600-1750,  and  its  culmination  in 
French  and  Indian  war  should  be  studied  in  its  broad 
outlines.  In  the  period  after  1763  all  purely  military 
operations  of  the  wars  should  be  omitted,  and  such 
other  topics  as  the  particular  conditions  of  the  case 
may  require. 

e.  A  short     review     of  the     Constitution     of  the 
United    States   should   precede   the   study   of   the   con- 
stitutional period. 

f.  The  other  topics  of  Civil  Government  should  be 
reviewed  as  they  occur  in  connection  with  'the  history. 

g.  The  reference  books  used  should  be  of  the  sort 
that   may   be   used   in   the   rural   schools,   rather  than 
the  larger  works. 

C.  At  least  one  paper  should  be  prepared,  showing  the  re- 
sults of  the  intensive  study  of  a  short  period  or  institution  in- 
volving all  the  steps   from  the  finding  of  the  material  to   the 
completion  of  the  narrative. 

D.  Chronological  tables  should  be  prepared  by  the  student 
to  indicate  the  steps  of  the  development  of  all   important   in- 
stitutions, etc. 

E.  Sketches  of  a  few  of  the  best  authors  should  be  given 
to  show  who  they  are,  or  were,  position  occupied,   methods  of 
work,  so  that  the  student-teacher  has  a  familiar  feeling  with 
the  works  of  an  author,  and  can  take  an  interest  in  his  works 
that  comes  only  with  such  familiarity. 

F.  The  work  that  may  be  done  in  the  lower  grades  may  be 
taught  by  referring  to  the  course  of  study  in  the  home  school 
and  in  the  State  Course  of  Study.        This  work  should  be  out- 
lined for  each  grade. 

G.  Instruction   and   practice   should   be   given   in   laying  off 
the  work,  assigning  the  lessons,  giving  direction  for  their  prep- 
aration, and  even  hearing  recitations.      In  connection  with  this 

.      part  of  the  work,  visits  could  be  paid  to  the  lower  grades  and 
where  possible  to  some  rural  schools. 

H.  Short  readings  from  some  good  elementary  w.ork  on  the 
teaching  of  history  should  be  made,  not  so  much  for  the  in- 
formation gained  from  the  book  as  for  inspiration,  and  for 
teaching  them  that  there  are  such  works.  McMurry,  Kemp, 
Hinsdale,  Macy,  Bourne,and  the  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven 
are  good. 

V.  The  teacher  of  United  States  History  should  know  more  than 
he  expects  to  teach.  He  should \not  only  have  a  good  understanding  of 
American  history,  but  also  some  knowledge  of  European  history,  es- 


60  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


pecially  that  of  England  from  1500  on.  The  more  he 'knows  of  Eu- 
ropean history  the  better  he  will  understand  and  teach  American  his- 
tory. Throughout  this  course  the  instructor  should  constantly  keep  in 
mind  the  preparation  of  teachers,  and  the  student  should  have  his 
notebook  ready  at  all  times  to  note  helps  and  suggestions.  An  able 
teacher  with  an  earnest  desire  to  instruct,  and  a  diligent  student  with 
an  earnest  desire  to  learn,  cannot  help  but  make  a  change  in  the  teac 
ing  of  history  in  the  rural  schools. 


, 


OUTLINE. 

The  American  History  department  of  the  University  has,  at  the 
request  of  the  state  superintendent,  attempted  a  suggestive  outline  of 
a  Normal  Course  in  American  History.  Being  intended  as  supple- 
mentary to  and  interpretative  of  the  regular  high  school  course,  and 
not  a  substitute  for  it,  the  outline  aims  mainly  at  the  bringing  out  of 
only  the  most  important  and  significant  items  of  the  various  periods 
covered,  trusting  to  previous  study  and  the  .daily  preparation  of  the 
teacher  for  details  and  background.  The  department  expresses  its 
willingness  to  aid  teachers  of  the  state  in  adapting  this  outline  to  the 
varying  needs  and  conditions  of  the  different  schools,  and  to  make 
clear  to  inquirers,  either  in  person  or  by  letter,  any  portions  of  the 
outlined  course  that  do  not  make  themselves  understood. 

A. — The   Colonial   Period 

I.      Conditions  leading  to  Old  World  discovery  of  America — 

1.  Commercial  necessity  of  new  trade-routes  to  Asia  and  India 

about  1450-1500. 

2.  Renaissance  beginnings  of  revival  of  geographical  theorizing 

as  to  possible  new  routes  to  the  East. 

3.  Personality,  training,  ideals  and  ambitions  of  Columbus. 

4.  European  conditions   responsible   for   Spanish   support   of   Co- 

lumbus'  experiment,    and   its   "monopoly"   of  America   for   a 
century  (1492-1607). 
U.      Rise  of  rival  European  colonizations  in  America — 

1.  English  colonization  of  Virginia      (1607)      and  New  England 

(1620-1640),  with  special  emphasis  upon  the  conditions  in 
England  responsible  for  the  latter  and  influencing  later' de- 
velcpmeiit  of  the  colonies. 

2.  French  colonization  of  St.  Lawrence  valley      (1608)      and  ex- 

pansion about  Great  Lakes  and  into  Mississippi  valley  (1608- 
1687). 

3.  Dutch  colonization  of  New  York   (1614-30)   and  Swedish  col- 

onization  of  Delaware    (1638);    quick  absorption  of  Swedes 
by  Dutch   (1655)  and  Dutch  by  English   (1664). 
III.     Chief  institutions     developed  by  English     colonists  in     America, 

1607-1754. 
1.      Varying  forms  of  local  self-government — 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  61 


a.  New  England  "township"  and  "town  meeting." 

b.  Southern  "county"   (or  "parish"  and"vcstry"). 

c.  Pennsylvania     and  New   York  combinaton     of  "town- 

ship" and  "county"  systems. 
2.     Nearly  uniform  type  of  colonial    (later  state)    government — 

a.  Governor,  appointed  by  king;  veto  power. 

1.     Elected   governor   in   Massachusetts,     Connecti- 
cut, Rhode  Island. 

b.  Council   (partially  an  upper  house  of  legislature,  par- 

tially governor's  advisors),  chosen  by  king  or  his  of- 
ficers; veto. 

1.      Elected  in  Massachusetts,     Connecticut,     Rhode 
Island. 

c.  House  of  Deputies,     or  Burgesses,     or  Representatives, 

elected  by  voters  of  colonies;  lay  taxes,  pass  laws,  pay 
salaries  of  king's  officers;  generally  serve  as  colonial 
supreme  court. 

d.  Religious,  property  and  other  severe  restrictions  upon 

suffrage  and  office  holding. 

3.  No  permanent  intercolonial  union,  cr  general  organ  for  im- 
perial authority  in  America. 

a.  English   political      control      through      Governors      and 

Councils. 

b.  English      commercial      control      through      trade   laws, 

(1652-1696). 

4.  Union  of  church  and  state,  except  in  Pennsylvania  and  Rhode 

Island. 

a.  Congregational      in    New    England;         persecution      of 

dissenters. 

b.  Episcopal  in  Virginia,  New  York,  Maryland,  etc.;  little 

persecution  of  dissenters. 

c.  Separation      church    and    state    in    Pennsylvania      and 

Rhode  Island  for  different  reasons. 

d.  General      persecution   and      proscription      of   Catholics 

after  1680. 

5.  Sectional  economic  development — 

a.  Northern  commerce,  fisheries,  shipbuilding,  small-farm 

agriculture,  and  "manufacturing;"  free  or  "inden- 
tured" labor. 

b.  Southern  "plantation"    (tobacco,  rice,  indigo)   system; 

slave  labor. 

c.  Middle   colonies'    large-farm    (corn,   wheat,    etc.)    agri- 

culture, commerce;  free,  "indentured"  and  slave  labor. 

6.  Chief     social       variation  from     Old  World — Development  of 

"Westerner." 


62 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


a.  Fundamentals  of  social  life  English  from  1600  to  1800. 

b.  Sectional  variations,  due  to    (1)   character  of  settlers, 

(2)  environment  and  its  results. 

c.  Influence  of  constantly  extending  "west,"   unlike  any- 

thing in  world  from  which  colonists  came. 
B. — The  Revolutionary  Epoch  (1754-63  to  1783) 

I.  The"French  and   Indian   War"    (1754-63)    and   its   relation  to  the 

American  Revolution. 

1.  "French  and  Indian  War" — climax  of  French-English  strug- 

gle for  world-empire  (including  America). 

2.  Results — English  world-supremacy;        French  expulsion  from 
America;  division  North  America  between  England  and  Spain. 

3.  Relation  to  Revolution — 

a.  Revealed  to   England      (1)    American  evasion      "trade 

laws,"  (2)  lack  of  imperial  authority  or  organs  of 
government  in  America,  (3)  American  wealth  and 
spirit;  attempts  to  meet  these  by  Parliamentary  leg- 
islation one  of  main  causes  of  revolution. 

b.  Revealed  to  Americans  their  own  strength  and  weak- 

ness of  British;  made  sections  acquainted;  bred  spirit 
of  union. 

c.  Burdened  England  with  debt  and  large     colonial  sys- 

tem, leading  to  colonial  taxation  and  administration 
reforms. 

II.  The  Political  Revolution   (1764-1776)  — 

1.  First  English  attempt  to  introduce     "change  or     policy"      in 

American  colonies,  1764-66.  , 

a.  Causes — French   and    Indian   war   revelations      (see    1, 

3,  a);  new  king,  parties,  and  conditions  in  England; 
advice  of  royal  officers  in  Colonies. 

b.  Changes    attempted — enforcement    trade    acts    (Sugar 

Act,  1764),  maintenance  English  army  in  America 
(Quartering  Act,  1765),  Parliamentary  Taxation  of 
Colonies  (Stamp  Act,  1765). 

c.  American      opposition — "Englishmen's        constitutional 

rights;"  "no  taxation  without  representation." 

d.  English  repeal,  but  with  "Declaratory  Act." 

2.  Second  attempt    (1767-1770)  — 

a.  Cause — new   financial   needs;    belief   that  new   method 

taxation  not  objectionable. 

b.  "Townshend  Acts,"  1767;     trade,  quartering,  revenue. 

c.  American       opposition — "Englishmen's       constitutonal 

rights,"  and  also  "natural  rights  of  man;"  "no  legis- 
lation without  representation." 

d.  English  repeal  of  revenue  act  except  tax  on  tea. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY  63 


3.      Third   attempt    (1773),      and   endeavor  to   force   colonial   ac- 
ceptance;  Revolution  and  Independence. 

a.  Three  years    (1770-1773)    preparation   before  new  at- 

tempt to  tax. 

b.  Cause  of  Tea  Act,   1773;    aid  English  East  India  Tea 

Co.,  and  introduce  principle  of  taxation. 

c.  Importation   taxed   tea,    1773;      colonial   return  or  de- 

struction of  tea;    "Boston  Tea  Party." 

d.  English   attempt  to      force     acceptance;      "Intolerable 

acts,"    1774;       colonial    defiance       (First    Continental 
Congress). 

c.  Increased  attempt  to  enforce  (coercive  acts  of  Feb.- 
Apr.,  1775);  colonial  preparation  for  armed  resist- 
ance (Second  Continental  Congress). 

f.      English   declaration      of   colonial      rebellion;      colonial 
Declaration  of  Independence;   setting  up  of  independ- 
ent state  governments. 
III.      The  Military  Revolution   (1776-1783)  — 

1.  The  war  in  the  North,  or  the  "struggle  for  the  center"   (Hud- 

son valley),  1776-1777,  1777-1779;  French  alliance  and  aid; 
formation  of  the  Confederation. 

2.  War  in  the  West,  and  on  the  sea. 

3.  War  in  the  South  (1778-1781);  new  plan  of  British  invasion; 

initial  British  success;  period  of  American  despondency;  final 
American  victory. 

4.  Peace — difficulties    in    beginning   negotiations;      Spanish    and 

French  attempt  to  limit  boundaries;      struggle  over  Tories; 
final  terms. 

5.  Results  of  the  Revolution  on  America,  England,  world-life. 

C. — Constitutional  Period. 

I.  Formation  of  the  Constitution,   1780-89— 

1.  Failure  of  Confederation;   reasons. 

2.  Movements  looking  to  a  Constitutional  Convention. 

a.  By  individuals,  Washington  and  others. 

b.  By  state  legislatures,   New   York,   Massachusetts,   etc. 
3.      Events  hastening  this  movement. 

a.  Lack  of  revenue. 

b.  Commercial    decay;    separate   state   control. 

c.  Shay's  rebellion,  1786. 

d.  Washington   accepts   leadership. 

4.  The  convention;   membership;   work,  etc. 

5.  Ratification  by  state  conventions;    form,  reasons  for,  etc. 

6.  Summary  of  arguments  for  and  against  constitution. 

7.  The  North-West  Ordinance. 

II.  Putting  the  constitution  into  operation,   1788-1793— 
1.      Elections — congress,  the  president;   organization. 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


2.  Creation   of   executive   departments — State,   War,    Justice. 

3.  Organization  of  the  Judicial  Department. 

4.  Early  measures. 

a.  Revenue  laws — tariff,  internal  taxes. 

b.  Assumption  State  debts;   funding  national  debt. 

c.  The  bank;   broad  and  strict  interpretation. 

d.  A  neutral  policy  proclaimed. 

III.  Foreign  relations  dominant,   1793-1815— 

A.  During  Federal  party  control,   1793-1801. 

1.  French-English  sympathies;    English  leanings, 

2.  Jay's  treaty;   French  opposition. 

3.  X.  Y.  Z.  affair;    hostilities  with  France. 

4.  Alien  and  Sedition  laws. 

5.  Virginia  and  Kentucky  resolutions;    State  Sovereignty 

doctrine  stated. 

r6.      Federal  party  splits;  Adams  vs.  Hamilton;  Republicans 
triumph. 

B.  During  Republican  supremacy,  1801-1815. 

1.  Foreign  relations;-  French  leanings. 

2.  Simplicity;  ceremonies  abandoned;  debt  reductions,  etc. 

3.  Expansion — purchase   Louisiana,    arguments. 

4.  War  in  Europe;  Orders  in  Council  and  Decrees. 

5.  Remedy   for  our   wrongs;    peaceful   means;      Embargo 

and  Non-Intercourse. 

6.  Insults  by  both  England  and  France;   war   1812. 

IV.  Nationality  established,  1815-30— 

1.  Disintegration   and    reorganization    of    political    parties. 

a.  Federalists  disappear;    "Era  Good  Feeling." 

b.  National   Republicans   vs.    Democratic   Republicans. 

2.  Internal  questions  replace  foreign. 

a.  The  bank. 

b.  Protecton;    growth;    becomes  sectional. 

c.  Internal  improvements. 

3.  The  westward  movement  and  rise  of  western  political  influence. 

a.      Florida  annexed;    eyes  on  Texas  and  the  Pacific. 

4.  The  slavery  question  begins  to  enter  political  discussion. 

a.  The  Missouri  struggle. 

b.  Compromise — the  line  36'   30"  drawn. 

c.  First  signs  of  a  reaction  towards  strict  construction  and 

States'  Rights. 

5.  The  Monroe  Doctrine. 

a.  Rise  of  South  American  republics. 

b.  The  attitude  of  Europe;   Holy  allies. 

c.  Real  meaning;  authorship. 

6.  The   canal   and   railroad;      the   American    character      clearly    in 

evidence. 


x^'A*3-*-1-'*  ' 

f  OF  THE 

I   UNtVERSTTV 


OF 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY.  65 


V.  Democracy   triumphant,    1830-45;    development      of   State   Sover- 

•     eignty  Doctrine. 

1.  The  people  in  power;  Jackson  their  representative. 

2.  Reforms  on  one  side;  the  spoils  system  on  the  other. 

a.     Prison    reform;    imprisonment    for    debt    ends;    moral 
awakening;    temperance   movement;    abolitionism. 

3.  Nullification. 

a.  Its  theory;   Calhoun. 

b.  Its  overthrow;   Jackson,  Webster. 

c.  Compromise  of  1833  vs.  "Force  Bill;"  Clay. 

4.  The  slavery  question;  its  development. 

a.  Abolitionists;   doctrines;   Garrison. 

b.  Right  of  Petition;   J.  Q.  Adams. 

c.  Change  of  Southern  point  of  view;      "Slavery  a  good." 

5.  The  economic  issues   (losing  political  importance). 

a.  Bank;   tariff;   currency. 

b.  The  crisis  if  1837;  its  causes  and  effects. 

c.  The  independent  treasury. 

6.  Development  of  internal  improvements  under  States. 

VI.  The  slavery  issue  dominant,  1845-1865 — 

1.  Annexation  of  Texas;  terms;  effects. 

2.  The  Mexican  war;  settlement  of  Oregon  boundary. 

a.  Causes  of  war;  its  justness. 

b.  Territorial   acquisitions;      California,   etc.;      area;    im- 

portance. 

3.  The  question  of  status  of  the  territories. 

a.  Theories;  congressional  control;   popular  sovereigntry ; 

property  rights  doctrine. 

b.  Compromise  of  1850;  terms;  results. 

4.  The  final  events  leading  to  Civil  War. 

a.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  bill. 

b.  The  Dred  Scott  decision. 

c.  The  struggle  in  Kansas;   Lecompton  constitution. 

d.  Breach   in   Democratic   party;    Douglas. 

e.  John  Brown  raid;   Brown's  trial  and  death. 

f.  Election  of  Lincoln  by  Republicans. 

5.  The  Civil  War. 

^  a.      Attempts  to  compromise,  1860-61. 

b.     Outline  events  of  war. 

1.  Military — enlistment;    draft;    etc. 

2.  Emancipation;   effects. 

3.  Economic;  bank,  tariff,  etc. 

VII.  Reconstruction,   1865-1877— 

1.     Various  theories  and  plans;   presidential,  congressional,  etc. 

a.  Military  reconstruction,  1867. 

b.  Amendments  to  Constitution. 


66  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


2.  "Carpet-bag"  governments,  1868-77. 

a.     Formation  of  the  solid  South;  white  supremacy  restored. 

3.  Corruption  and  reform. 
VIII.     Development  since  1877. 

1.  Party  contests  and  principles;  party  names. 

2.  Foreign  affairs. 

a.  Purchase  Alaska. 

b.  Annexation  Hawaii. 

c.  The  Spanish  war  and  results. 

3.  Industrial  problems. 

a.  Labor  issues. 

b.  Transportation  .and  the  trust  problems. 

4.  Economic  problems. 

a.  The  tariff. 

b.  The  currency  question;      specie  payments;      the  silver 

coinage  struggle. 

5.  Social,  religious  and  moral  conditions. 

H.    W.    CALDWELL,    University    of   Nebraska, 
C.  N.  ANDERSON,  Kearney  State  Normal, 
CORA  O'CONNELL,  Ashland, 

Committee, 

AGRICULTURE. 

TWO  SEMESTER      (ONE  YEAR)      COURSE. 
SYNOPSIS. 

Class  Work  Laboratory  Work 

Number  of  Number  of 

Periods.  Double  Periods. 
First  semester. 

I.     Farm  animals 32  8 

II.     Milk  and  its  products 20  5 

III.     Soils.... 12  3 

Total 64  16 

Second  semester: 

III.  Soils  (continued) 12  8 

IV.  Field  crops 18  12 

V.     Orchard  and  garden  crops 18  12 

Total 48  32 

1.      OUTLINE  OF   CLASS  EXERCISES. 

1       Farm  Animals. 

Horses. — The  primitive  horse  as  revealed  by  geological  discover- 
ies.     Wild  races  and  their  habitat.      Domestication  by  ancient  peoples. 


AGRICULTURE.  67 


Uses  since  earliest  times.  Classification  of  modern  breeds  according 
to  types;  draft,  general  purposes,  roadsters;  adaptation  of  each  type. 
Development  and  characteristics  of  the  leading  breeds:  draft — Per- 
cheron,  English  shire,Clydesdale,  Belgion,  Suffolk;  general  purpose 
French  Coach,  German  Coach,  Cleveland  Bay;  Roadsters — English 
thoroughbred,  American  trotter,  Morgan,  Hackney,  Kentucky  saddle 
horse,  ponies. 

Cattle. — Species,  wild  and  domesticated.  Distribution  among  an- 
cient peoples.  Classification  according  to  types;  beef,  general  purpose, 
dairy;  adaptation  of  each  type.  Development  and  characteristics  of  the 
leading  breeds:  beef — Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Angus,  Galloway,  Polled 
Durham;  general  purpose — Red  Polled,  Brown  Swiss;  dairy — Jersey, 
Guernsey,  Holstein. 

Sheep. — Species,  wild  and  domesticated.  Distribution  among  an- 
cient peoples.  Classification,  mutton,  wool;  adaptation  of  each  type. 
Characteristics  of  each  of  the  leading  breeds:  mutton — Shropshire, 
Hampshire,  Southdown,  Oxford,  Cheviot,  Dorset-Horned,  Lincoln,  Lei- 
cester, Cotswold;  Wool — American  Merino,  Delaine  Merino,  Rambouil- 
let. 

Swine. — Species,  wild  and  domesticated.  Early  distribution.  Class- 
ification according  to  types;  lard,  bacon;  adaptation  of  each  type. 
Development  and  characteristics  of  the  important  breeds:  lard — Berk- 
shire, Poland  China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Chester  White;  bacon — Yorkshire, 
Hampshire,  Tamworth. 

Poultry. — History,  types,  breeds,  etc.  Classification  of  chickens 
according  to  types;  laying,  general  purpose,  meat.  Characteristics 
of  the  leading  breeds:  laying — Leghorns,  Minorca,  Black  Spanish, 
Hamburg;  general  purpose — Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandotte,  Orpington, 
Rhode  Island  Reds;  meat — Brahmas,  Langshans,  Cochins.  Turkey 
raising. 

Food  and  Sanitation. — General  principles  to  be  observed  in  the 
feeding  of  all  farm  animals.  Pood  requirements  for  body  maintenance, 
meat  and  milk,  with  reference  to  quality  and  quantity  of  food.  Palata- 
bility  of  foods.  Regularity  of  feeding.  Feeding  and  management  o£ 
dairy  cows,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  horses,  poultry. 

Stable  sanitation  and  prevention  of  diseases. 

2.  Milk  and  Its  Products. 

Milk. — Milk  secretion.  Composition  of  milk.  Properties  of  milk.. 
Milk  solids,  per  cent  and  commercial  value.  The  "milk  dairy"  and  milk 
as  food.  Contamination  of  dairy  products.  Prevention  of  contamina- 
tion. By-products  of  the  dairy. 

Cream  and  Butter. — The  creaming  of  milk  by  gravity  and  centri- 
fugal force.  Ferments  in  milk  and  cream.  Care  and  preparation  of 
cream  for  market.  Care  and  ripening  of  cream  intended  for  butter- 
making  on  the  farm.  Care  of  dairy  machinery  and  utensils.  The  mar- 


68  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


keting  of  dairy  products.  Profits  from  different  methods  of  dairying. 
Finding  profit  or  loss  in  animals  and  herds. 

3.  Soils. 

Principles. — Origin  and  transportation  of  soils.  Mechanical  com- 
position of  soils.  Plant  food  material  in  the  soil  (elements  of  fertility, 
fixation  of  plant  food  material).  Humus.  Relation  of  the  plant  to 
plant  food  material  in  the  soil  (available  and  unavailable  fertility). 
Nitrification.  Accretion  of  nitrogen  through  leguminous  plants.  Tilth 
arrangement  of  soil  particles.  Forms  in  which  water  exists  in  soils. 
Movement  of  water  in  soils.  Movement  of  air  in  soils.  Relation  of  the 
soil  to  heat. 

Management. — Plowing;  manner,  time,  depth,  frequency,  for  what 
crops,  etc.  Sub-surface  packing;  description,  time,  when  useful  etc. 
Harrowing;  methods,  time,  depth,  frequency,  etc.  Cultivating;  meth- 
ods, time,  depth,  frequency,  etc.  Rolling  and  floating;  methods,  time, 
occasions.  Crop  rotations.  Effect  of  grass  crops.  Use  of  barn-yard 
manure.  Use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

4.    Field    Crops. 
Cereals. 

Corn. — History  and  development  of  varieties,  habits  of  growth, 
preparation  of  soil,  planting,  cultivating,  harvesting,  storing,  improve- 
ment through  seed  selection,  effect  of  environment,  varieties  adapted 
to  different  localities,  disease,  insect  enemies. 

Wheat. — Types,  varieties,  winter  and  spring,  hard  and  soft,  habit 
of  growth,  effect  of  environment,  preparation  of  soil,  planting,  harrow- 
ing, harvesting,  storing,  improvement  through  seed  selection,  diseases, 
insect  enemies. 

Oats. — Varieties,  habits  of  growth,  effect  of  environment,  improve- 
ment through  seed  selection,  preparation  of  soil,  planting,  harvesting, 
diseases,  insect  enemies. 

Barley. — Two  and  six  rowed,  varieties,  uses,  quality,  planting, 
harvesting,  insect  enemies. 

Bye,  buckwheat. — Cultural  methods. 

Forage  Crops. — Alfalfa,  red  clover,  mammoth  clover,  white  clover 
alsike  clover,  brome  grass,  meadow  fescue,  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
orchard  grass,  sorghum,  millet,  timothy. 

Treat  each  as  nearly  as  possible  according  to  the  following  plan: 
History,  effect  of  environment,  varieties,  habits  of  growth,  seed,  selec- 
tion of  soil,  preparation  of  soil,  planting,  care  of  field,  harvesting,  stor- 
ing seed  raising. 

5.  Garden  and  Orchard  Crops. 

Location  and  site  for  gardens  and  orchards. 
Elevation,  aspect,  soil,  windbreaks,  etc. 
Laying  out  the  grounds. 


AGRICULTURE.  69 


For  fruit,  vegetable  and  flower  crops.  For  ornamental  effects. 

Propagation  of  plants. 

By  seeds — Stratifying,  storing,  scalding,  soaking,  planting  seeds. 
Germination,  seed  testing.  Preparing  seed  beds,  cold  frames,  hotbeds, 
etc. 

By  separation — division,  layerage — Bulbs,  corms,  tubers,  suckers, 
stools,  stolons,  offsets,  layers,  etc. 

By  cuttings — Roots,  tubers,  leaves,  growing  stems,  dormant  stems, 
etc. 

By  graftage — Budding.inarching,  root-grafting,  top-grafting,  prep- 
aration of  grafting  wax,  etc. 

Transplanting  trees  and  plants — Digging,  packing,  unpacking,  heel- 
ing-in,  puddling,  planting,  pricking  out,  potting,  shifting,  etc. 

Tillage  of  gardens  and  orchards — Cultivation,  mulching,  cover- 
crops,  etc.  Windbreaks. 

Manures  and  fertilizers  for  horticultural  crops. 

Pruning  and  training — For  growth  and  for  fruit.  Study  of  fruit 
buds.  Treatment  of  wounds.  Bush  fruit,  grapes,  fruit  trees,  shade 
trees,  shrubs, hedges,  etc. 

Protection  of  trees  and  plants  against  frost  and  freezing — Bury- 
ing, mulching,  wrapping,  shading,  whitewashing,  etc.  Foretelling  frost. 
Relation  of  maturity  to  hardiness.  Relation  of  soil  moisture  to  winter 
injury. 

Protection  against  insects,  rodents,  diseases,  etc. 

General  types  of  injurious  insects,  diseases,  etc.  Preparation  of 
spraying  mixtures,  use  of  spray  pumps,  etc. 

Harvesting  and  storing  fruit  and  vegetables. 

Classification — Of  shade  trees,  shrubs,  hardy  flowers,  annual  flow- 
ers, vegetables,  fruits,  etc. 

Plant  improvements— Variation  and  inheritance  of  plant  charac- 
ters. Hybridization.  Selection,  etc. 

II.   OUTLINE    OF    LABORATORY    EXERCISES. 
1.  Farm  Animals. 

Eight  practice  periods  at  nearby  stock  farms  one  day  each  week. 
Judging  by  use  of  score  cards  typical  specimens  of  draft  horses,  road- 
ster horses,  beef  cattle,  dairy  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 
2.  Milk  and  Its  Products. 

Milk  testing,  exercise  to  find  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  whole  milk 
by  Babcock  method. 

Cream  testing,  exercise  to  find  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  cream  by  a 
weighed  eighteen  gram  sample,  Babcock  method. 

Finding  milk  solids — Exercise  to  find  the  per  cent  of  milk  solids 
by  the  use  of  the  Quevenne  Lactometer  and  Babcock  milk  test. 

Testing  a  separator,  exercise  to  find  the  capacity  of  a  separator 
and  its  ability  to  skim  closely. 


70  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


Testing  herds,  exercise  to  find  the  value  of  all  animals  in  a  herd 
by  weighing  and  testing  the  milk  of  each. 

3.  Soils. 

Microscopic  examination  of  soils. 

Soil  as  distinguished  from  pulverized  rock. 

Taking  soil  temperatures. 

Effect  of  drainage  on  soil  temperature. 

Effect  of  soil  drainage  upon  growth  of  plant. 

Power  of  loose  soil  to  retain  water. 

Power  of  compact  soil  to  retain  water. 

Power  of  humus  to  retain  water. 

Rate  of  percolation  of  water  througn  soils. 

A  study  of  the  rise  of  capillary  water  in  soils. 

Effect  of  mulches  on  evaporation  of  water  from  soils. 

Humus  in  soils. 

A  study  of  humus  in  the  soil. 

Effect  of  lime  on  clay  soil. 

Effect  of  alkali  and  acid  on  physical  nature  of  soil. 

Flocculation  of  clay. 

Absorption  of  gases. 

Effect  upon  plant  growth  of  plant  food  material  in  soil. 
4.    Field   Crops. 

Corn. — Placing  ears  of  corn  in  the  order  of  their  excellence  in  re- 
spect to  (1)  butts,  (2)  tips,  (3)  shape  of  ear,  (4)  market  condition, 
(5)  shape  of  kernels,  (6)  space  between  kernels.  At  least  two  varie- 
ties. 

Judging  exhibits  of  corn  with  score  card.   /Vt  least  two  varieties. 

Grading  samples  of  commercial  grades  of  corn,  as  yellow  corn, 
Nos.  1,  2,  3;  white  corn,  Nos.  1,  2,  3;  mixed  corn,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4. 

Testing  samples  for  viability. 

Study  of  structure  of  different  types  of  corn,  as  pod,  flint,  flour, 
pop,  sweet,  dent. 

Wheat. — Study  of  (1)  hardiness,  (2)  texture,  (3)  color,  (4)size 
of  kernel;  in  durum,  northern  spring,  hard  winter,  red  winter  and 
white  winter  wheat. 

Examination  of  heads  of  Polish,  common  and  durum  wheat  and 
of  emmer  and  einkorn. 

Grading  samples  of  hard  winter  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  re- 
jected; spring  wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  rejected. 

Oats. — Examination  of  heads  of  side  oats,  and  open  panicle  oats. 

Grading  samples  of  white  oats,  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4;  mixed  oats, 
Nos.  1,  2,  Sand  4. 

Barley. — Examination  of  heads  of  two-row  and  six-row  barleys, 
hulled  and  hulless  varieties,  bleached  and  sprouted,  as  compared  with 
sound  and  properly  colored  kernels. 


AGRICULTURE.  71 


Grass  Seeds. — Identification  of  grass  seeds  and  detection  of  adult- 
eration. 

Clover  Seeds. — Identification  of  clover  seeds. 
Millet  Seeds. — Identification  of  millet  seeds. 

5.  Garden  and  Orchard  Crops. 

Drawing  plan  for  the  ornamental  planting  of  the  school  ground 
or  of  the  home  grounds.  Drawing  plan  for  small  orchard  and  garden. 

Preparing  hotbed  and  sowing  vegetable  seeds  in  it.  Sowing  veg- 
etable and  flower  seeds  in  flats  indoors.  Preparing  seed  bed  and  sow- 
ing seeds  in  the  school  garden. 

Seed  testing.   Stratifying  peach  pits.  Scalding  honey  locust  seeds. 

Examining  the  bulbs  of  tiger  lily,  corms  of  gladiolus,  tip-layers  of 
black  raspberry.  Separating  stools  of  canna  and  rhubarb. 

Making  and  storing  hard  wood  stem  cutting  of  grape,  willow  and 
various  hardy  shrubs;  root  cutting  of  horse  radish;  leaf  cuttings  of 
bryophyllum;  soft  wood  stem  cutting  (slips)  of  geranium,  etc. 

Preparing  grafting  wax.  Making  root-grafts  of  apple.  Budding 
willow  cuttings. 

Transplanting  trees,  shrubs,  and  small  plants. 

Examining  and  using  garden  cultivators,  mulching  trees  and  plants. 

Studying  fruit  buds. 

Pruning  trees,  shrubs  and  small  fruits. 

Preparing  Bordeaux  mixture  and  kerosene  emulsion. 

Examining  stored  vegetables. 

Identifying  shade  trees,  evergreens,  ornamental  shrubs,  etc.,  on 
school  ground. 

Studying  variation  in  samples  of  beans  and  corn,  studying  crossed 
popcorn  and  sweet  corn. 

III.    EQUIPMENT    FOR    LABORATORY   WORK. 
1.  Farm  Animals. 

Score  card,  measuring  tape,  food  samples. 

2.  Milk  and  Its  Products. 

One  ten-bottle  Babcock  testing  machine,  hand  power. 
Two  dozen  whole  milk  test  bottles. 
One  dozen  cream  bottles  fifty  per  cent. 
One-half  dozen  cream  bottles  thirty  per  cent. 
Two  double  neck  skim  milk  bottles. 
One  dozen  acid  measures  17.5  cc. 

.  .       One  dozen  pipettes  graduated  for  both  17.5  cc.  and  18.0  cc. 
One  dozen  big  mouthed  four-ounce  sample  bottles. 
T  beakers,  250  cc. 

Two  Quevenne  Lactometers,  with  jars  for  same. 
One  pair  of  cream  scales  to  weigh  grams. 
One  pair  of  dividers. 


72  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


One  spring  balance  milk  scales  marked  to  pounds  and  tenths  of 
pounds. 

3.    Soils. 

Glass  plates  (window  glass  cut  in  four  and  eight-inch  squares  will 
do). 

Two  dozen  glass  slides  for  microscope,  identical  with  botany  ap- 
paratus. 

One  compound  microscope,  identical  with  botany  apparatus. 

Three  hand  lenses. 

One  iron  mortar  and  pestle. 

Two  dozen  flower  pots,   (tin  cans  may  be  substituted.) 

Three  thermometers,  graduated  to  100  degrees  C. 

Soil  auger,  two  inches  with  thirty  inch  shank. 

Five  brass  tubes  or  galvanized  iron  tubes,  two  inches  in  diameter, 
ten  inches  tall  with  perforated  bottom  one  inch  from  end  of  tube. 

Five  brass  or  galvanized  iron  tubes,  15  inches  tall,  a  perforated 
bottom  one  and  one-half  inches  from  end  of  tube,  a  solid  bot- 
tom at  end,  an  opening  just  above  solid  bottom  fitted  with  one-fourth 
inch  delivery  tube;  at  the  top,  at  right  angles  to  delivery  tube  and 
one  inch  from  top  end,  two  one-fourth-inch  delivery  tubes  placed  op- 
posite one  another  to  allow  water  to  flow  across  top  of  soil. 

Five  three-fourth-inch  glass  tubing,  three  or  four  feet  long. 

One  frame  to  hold  three  tubes  like  above. 

Five  galvanized  iron  cylinders  four  inches  in  diameter,  twenty- 
eight  inches  high,  perforated  two  inches  high  around  bottom, fitted 
with  larger  outside  bottom  for  holding  water  about  perforated  end. 

One  porcelain  crucible  for  igniting  soils. 

One  dozen  beakers. 

One  dozen  four-ounce  wide  mouthed  bottles. 

One  dozen  eight-ounce  wide  mouthed  bottles. 

One  graduate,  200  cc. 

One  solution  balance,  twenty  kilo. 

Soil,  sand,  gravel,  loam,  clay. 

Fertilizers  and  chemicals;  compost  or  well  rotted  manure,  air 
slaked  lime,  common  salt,  sodium  or  potassium  nitrate,  sawdust, 
straw. 

4.   Field   Crops. 

Dent  corn  for  placing  and  judging  ears.  Ten  ears  of  two  varie- 
ties for  each  pupil.  Reid's  Yellow  Dent  is  recommended  for  one  va- 
riety. 

Commercial  grades  of  corn  in  lots  of  one  peck  each;  yellow  corn, 
Nos.  1,  2,  3;  white  corn,  Nos.  1,  2,  3;  mixed  corn,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4. 

Ears  of  pod,  flint,  flour,  pop,  sweet  and  dent  corn. 

Samples  of  threshed  wheat,  one-half  peck  lots  of  the  following 
kinds:  durum,  northern  spring,  hard  winter,  white  winter,  red  winter, 


AGRICULTURE.  73 


Samples  of  the  following  wheats  in  head,  one  for  each  pupil; 
Polish,  common,  durum,  emmer  and  einkorn. 

Commercial  grades  of  wheat  in  lots  of  one  peck  each;  hard  win- 
ter, Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  rejected;  spring  wheat  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and 
rejected. 

Samples  of  side  oats  and  open  panicle  oats,  one  head  for  each  pupil. 

Commercial  grades  of  oats  in  lots  of  one  peck  each;  white  oats 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4;  mixed  oats,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4. 

Samples  of  two-row  and  six-row  barleys,  one  head  for  each  pupil. 

Samples  of  the  following  threshed  barleys,  in  lots  of  one  peck 
each;  hulled,  hulless,  bleached,  sprouted,  sound  and  properly  colored. 

Samples  of  twelve  kinds  of  grass  seeds,  preferably  those  used  in 
the  vicinity.  Each  pupil  should  have  at  least  one  hundred  seeds  of 
each  kind;  brome,  timothy,  Kentucky  blue,  orchard,  meadow  fescue, 
red  top,  rye,  wheat,  Johnson,  tall  meadow  oat,  sheep  fescue,  crested 
dog's  tail,  etc. 

Samples  of  the  same  amounts  of  Japanese,  German,  Hungarian, 
Siberian  and  broom  corn  millets. 

Samples  of  the  same  amounts  of  clover  .seeds  of  the  following 
varieties;  red,  mammoth,  white,  alsike,  sweet,  crimson,  yellow,  burr, 
Bokhara,  Japan,  sanfoin. 

Samples  of  common  and  Turkestan  alfalfa  seeds. 

5.  Garden  and  Orchard  Crops. 

School  garden. 

Fruits,  vegetables  and  flowers. 

Cellar  storeroom,  if  possible. 

Collection  of  seeds  of-  vegetables,  flowers  and  trees;  apple  stocks 
and  scions  for  grafting;  willow  cuttings  for  budding;  various  bulbs, 
corms,  tubers,  etc.;  vegetables  for  storing. 

Collection  of  flower  pots  and  shallow  boxes  (flats)  for  plants, 
seedlings,  cuttings,  etc.;  earthen  plates  and  blotting  paper  for  seed 
testing;  tin  cups  for  making  grafting  wax;  glass  beakers  or  tumblers 
lor  mixing  spray  materials. 

Garden  loam,  rotted  sod,  fine  manure  and  sand  for  growing  plants. 

One  pair  pruning  shears. 

One  saw. 

Two  grafting  knives. 

Twelve  budding  knives  and  razor  strap. 

Six  dibbers. 

Six  hoes. 

Six  rakes. 

One  spade. 

One  shovel. 

One  garden  line  and  reel. 

One  wheelhoe. 


NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


Materials  for  spray  mixtures;  one  peck  quicklime.five  pounds 
copper  sulphate,  one' pound  Paris  Green,  soap,  kerosene. 

Materials  for  grafting  wax;  two  pounds  resin,  one  pound  bees- 
wax, one  pound  tallow,  wrapping  card  for  budding,  knitting  cotton 
for  grafting. 

IV.   REFERENCE   BOOKS  FOR  LIBRARY. 
1.  Farm  Animals. 

New  Elementary,  by  Bessey,  Bruner  &  Swezey,  University  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

Breeds  of  Live  Stock,  by  Shaw.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Profitable  Stock  Feeding,  by  Smith.  Author,  Lincoln,  Nebr., 
State  University. 

Judging  Animals,  by  Craig.  Renyon  Printing  Co.,  Des  Moines, 
Iowa. 

2.  Milk  and  Its  Products. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter  Making  by  McKay  &  Larsen. 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y.  City. 

Milk  and  Its  Products,  by  Wing.  Macmillan  &  Co.,  New  York 
City. 

Dairy  Chemistry,  by  Snyder.      Chem.  Pub.  Co.,  Easton,  Pa. 

The  Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice,  by  Wool.  John  Wiley 
&  Sons,  New  York  City. 

3.  Soils. 

Soils  and  Fertilizers,  by  H.  Snyder.  Chem.  Pub.  Co.,  Easton,  Pa. 

Physics  of  Agriculture,  by  F.  H.  King,  Author,  Madison,  Wis. 

Agricultural  Bacteriology,  by  H.  W.  Conn.  P.  Blakiston's  Son  &  Co., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Principles  of  Agriculture,  by  L.  H.  Bailey.  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y. 
City. 

4.   Field  Crops. 

The  Cereals  in  America,  by  T.  F.  Hunt.  Orange  Judd  Co.,  Chicago, 
Illinois. 

Grasses  of  the  United  States,  by  W.  J.   Spillman.     Orange  Judd  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

Examining  and  Grading  Grains,  by  Lyon  &  Montgomery.  Auth- 
ors, Lincoln,  Nebr.,  State  University. 

5.  Garden  and  Orchard  Crops. 

Principles  of  Plant  Culture,  by  Goff.  Orange  Judd  Co.,  Chicago, 
Illinois. 

Garden  Making,  by  Bailey,  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Nursery  Book,  by   Bailey.      Macmillan   Co.,   New   York  City. 

6.  General  Books. 

Farmer's  Bulletins.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


AGRICULTURE.  75 


Committee — T.  L.  Lyon,  chairman,  University  of  Nebraska;  Law- 
rence Bruner,  University  of  Nebraska;  A.  E.  Davisson,  University  of 
Nebraska;  R.  A.  Emerson,  University  of  Nebraska;  A.  L.  Haecker, 
University  of  Nebraska;  H.  R.  Smith,  University  of  Nebraska;  F.  D. 
Heald,  University  of  Nebraska,  E.  C,  Bishop,  State  Deputy  Supt.  of 
Public  Instruction;  W.  L.  French,  State  Normal  at  Peru. 

ONE   SEMESTER   COURSE, 

After  conference  with  some  of  the  best  school  men,  we  are  con- 
vinced that  but  few  high  schools  in  Nebraska  are  at  present,  properly 
equipped  to  carry  the  two  semester  course  in  agriculture.  For  such  as 
can  carry  the  two  semester  course,  the  full  course  as  outlined  by  the 
committee  is  recommended.  For  high  schools  whose  equipment  will 
not  justify  them  in  attempting  the  two  semester  course,  a  one  semester 
course  adapted  by  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  from  the  two 
semester  course  is  here  given. 

The  outline  of  this  course  is  the  same  as  that  for  the  two  semester 
course  given  above,  except  as  herein  noted. 

Class  Work  Laboratory  Work 

Number  of  Number  of 

Periods.  Double  Periods. 
One  semester. 

I.     Farm  animals .......  v   10  3 

II.     Milk  and  its  products 5  5 

III.     Soils 12  8 

IV.     Field  Crops 9  6 

V.     Orchard  and  Garden  Crops 18  12 

Total 54  34 

I.  OUTLINE  OF  CLASS  EXERCISES. 

1.  Farm  Animals.     Follow  two  semester  course  outline,  except 
in  the  study  of  the  different  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and 
poultry.   Here  study  only  the  principle  and  most  common  breeds  in 
each  division. 

2.  Milk  and  its  products.     Follow  outline. 

3.  Soils.     Follow  outline. 

4.  Field  Crops.     Cereals.     Follow  outline.  Emphasize  especially 
corn,  wheat,   and  forage  crops,   treating  oats,  barley,   rye,   and  buck- 
wheat only  in  general. 

5.  Garden  and  Orchard  Crops.     Follow  outline. 

II.  OUTLINE  OF  LABORATORY  EXERCISES.  Three  practice  periods. 
1.     Farm  Animals.     At  nearby  stock  farm,  one  day  each  week, 

judge  by  use  of  score  cards.     These  periods  may  be  used  in  any  one 
of  the  three  ways  indicated  below: 

^.     Devote  one  period  to  the  study  of  typical  specimens  of 


76  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


draft  horses,  one  period  to  roadster  horses,  and  one  period 
either  beef  cattle  or  dairy  cattle. 

B.  Devote  one  period  to  the  study  of  typical  beef  cattle, 
one  period  to  dairy  cattle,  and  one  period  to  either  draft  or 
roadster  horses. 

C.  One  period  to  the  study  of  either  typical  draft  or  road- 
ster horses,   one  period  to  either  beef  or  dairy  cattle,   and   one  per- 
iod to  either  sheep  or  swine. 

2.  Milk  and  its  products.     One  period  to  each  of  the  five  labor- 
atory exercises  as  given  in  the  outline. 

3.  Soils.     From  the  outline,  choose  such  experiments  as  can  be 
successfully  handled  in  eight  periods. 

4.  Field  Crops.     Follow  outline  as  given  for  corn  and  wheat.     If 
time  allows,   a  brief  study   of   grass  seeds   and   clover  seeds   may   be 
given. 

5.  Garden  and  Orchard  Crops.      Follow  outline. 

III.  EQUIPMENT  FOR  LABORATORY  WORK.       Equipment  is  same 
as  given  in  outline,  except  under  4,  Field  Crops,  only  samples  of 

field  crops  studied  are  necessary. 

IV.  REFERENCE   BOOKS     and     LIBRARY   EQUIPMENT  as   given 
in  outline. 

• 
ESTIMATE  OF  COST  OF  LABORATORY  EQUIPMENT  IN  SOILS. 

Alvin  Keyser.    Agricultural   Experiment  Station,   U.   of  N. 

Under  the  subject  of  Agriculture  in  this  bulletin,  a  list  of  apparatus 
is  given  as  follows: 

Glass  plate  (window  glass  cut  in  four  and  eight-inch  squares  will 
do). 

Two  dozen  glass  slides  (identical  with  botany  apparatus). 
One  compound  microscope   (Identical  with  botany  apparatus). 
Three  hand  lenses. 

These  four  items  are  probably  already  at  hand  and  it  is  not  likely 
they  will  have  to  be  supplied  specially  for  this  work.     The  rest  of  the 
apparatus  in  the  list,  with  approximate  cost,  is  about  as  follows: 
One  iron  mortar  and  pestle,  at  $1.00. 

Two  dozen  flower  pots,  at  $0.75  -  $1.50    (tin  fruit  cans  may  be 
used  instead  of  flower  pots  in  the  experiment  sucessfully). 
Three  thermometers,  graduated  to  100  degrees  C.,  at  $1.00  -  $3.00. 
Soil  auger,   iy2      with  forty-two  inch  shank,  about  $2.00.     Five 
brass  or  galvanized  iron  tubes,  two  inches  in  diameter,  ten  inches 
tall  with  perforated  bottom  one  inch  from  end  of  tube.     The  brass 
tubes  would  cost  about  $1.00  to  $1.50  each.     The  galvanized  iron 
tubes  can  be  made  at  the  local  hardware  for  about  $0.40. 
Five  brass  or  galvanized  iron  tubes,  fifteen  inches  tall,  a  perfor- 
ated bottom  one  and  one-half  inches  from  end  of  tube,  a  solid  bot- 


AGRICULTURE.  77 


torn  at  end,  an  opening  just  above  solid  bottom  fitted  with  one- 
fourth  inch  delivery  tube;  at  the  top,  at  right  angles  with  delivery 
tube  and  one  inch  from  top  end,  two  one-fourth  inch  delivery 
tubes  placed  opposite  one  another  to  allow  water  to  flow  across 
top  of  soil. 

I  would  recommend  the  galvanized  iron  tubes  for;  this  purpose. 
They  would  cost  about  $0.75  each.  For  work  in  the  High  Schobls  I 
think  these  tubes  can  be  dispensed  with  and  the  experiment  performed 
with  simpler  apparatus  which  is  cheaper  and  illustrates  the  principle 
just  as  well  as  the  use  of  these  tubes.  In  my  own  laboratory  I  am  using 
student  lamp  chimneys  for  this  purpose.  These  chimneys  cost  me 
$0.90  per  dozen  in  Lincoln.  The  manner  of  using  this  sort  of  apparatus 
for  the  experiment  is  well  illustrated  in  the  exercises  on  soils'  given  in 
Bulletin  186  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.  Exercise  31  on  page 
46  of  that  Bulletin. 

The  glass  tubing  which  is  the  next  item  mentioned  can  be  dispensed 
with  if  the  lamp  chimneys  are  used  for  the  experiment  performed  by 
the  two  previous  pieces  of  apparatus.  The  frames  to  hold  the  lamp 
chimneys  or  glass  tubes  can  be  made  by  any  local  carpenter  or  a 
handy  student  and  probably  cost  $0.75. 

The  next  item  on  the  list,  5  galvanized  iron  cylinders  twenty- 
eight  inches  high  and  four  inches  in  diameter  w'buld  probably 
cost  about  $1.50  each.  I  would  recommend  in  their  stead,  gal- 
vanized pails  which  can  be  bought  of  the  local  hardware  and  will 
answer  the  purpose  just  as  well. 

One   porcelain   crucible   for   igniting   soils.     I   would    recommend 
instead  of  a  porcelain  crucible  a  so  called  spun  iron  crucible  which 
would  cost  about  $0.25. 
One  dozen  beakers  about  $3.00. 

One  dozen  four-ounce  wide  mouthed  bottles,  about  $0.50. 
One  dozen  eight-ounce  wide  mouthed  bottles,  about  $0.60. 
One  graduate,  200cc.,  about  $1.50. 
One  solution  balance,  twenty  kilo,  at  $20.00. 

The  soil,  sand,  gravel,  loam,  clay,  etc., can  usually  be  gathered  from 
land  near  the  school.  The  fertilizers  and  chemicals;  compost  or  well 
rotted  manure,  can  be  bought  in  the  quantities  necessary  for  labor- 
atory use,  at  the  local  drug  store  and  any  bright  active  boy  can  obtain 
a  supply  of  the  compost  or  well  rotted  manure.  Slaked  lime  can  be 
obtained  from  the  local  building  material  dealer.  The  sawdust  and 
straw  can  be  obtained  without  difficulty. 

Although  I  was  not  a  member  of  the  committee  that  drafted  this 
course  of  study,  I  did  prepare  the  course  in  soils  at  Dr.  Lyon's  request, 
and  since  preparing  the  outline  I  have  given  considerable  thought  to 
the  method  of  teaching  soils  in  the  High  Schools.  I  am  convinced 
that  the  simpler  the  apparatus  and  the  more  evident  the  demonstration 


78  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


the  greater  the  interest  in  the  subject  and  the  more  thoro  the  results 
obtained. 

All  the  exercises  given  may  be  performed  with  apparatus  and 
material  which  can  commonly  be  obtained  from  local  sources.  For 
instance;  take  the  experiment  entitled  "Power  of  loose  soils  to  retain 
water."  The  experiment  could  be  performed  with  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  accuracy  by  placing  a  given  quantity  (volume)  of  loose  soil 
in  a  student  lamp  chimney  or  glass  tube  having  a  cloth  strip  over  the 
lower  end.  A  measured  quantity  of  water  is  added  until  percolation 
commences  at  the  lower  end.  The  water  which  drains  off  is  col- 
lected and  measured.  The  difference  between  the  amount  of  water 
added  and  the  amount  drained  off  represents  the  amount  of  water 
which  the  soil  is  capable  of  retaining.  This  illustrates  in  one  specific 
case  what  can  be  done  in  these  exercises  by  the  use  of  simple  apparatus 
and  material. 

My  suggestion  would  be  that  they  be  used  instead  of  obtaining  the 
more  costly,  if  somewhat  more  accurate,  apparatus. 

PROFESSIONAL   TRAINING. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

Owing  to  the  age  and  preparation  of  the  students,  the  purpose  of 
the  instruction,  and  the  limited  amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to  the 
study  it  was  thought  best  to  confine  the  work  to  a  few  lines  in  which 
the  teaching  can  be  made  most  concrete  and  practical.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  advised  that  no  attempt  be  made  to  teach  technical  ped- 
agogy, psychology,  history  of  education,  and  other  subjects  belonging 
to  the  more  comprehensive  work  of  the  normal  school  and  university. 
The  subjects  considered  most  appropriate  under  the  circumstances  are: 

1.  A  course   (30  lessons)   in  the     Theory  and  Practice     of 
teaching  including  a  brief  outline  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  elementary  education. 

2.  A  course   (30  lessons)   in  method  of  instruction  and  dis- 
trict school  organization  and  management. 

3.  At  least  twe'nty-six  observation  lessons  under  grade  teach- 
ers and  three  to  five  practice  lessons  with  high  school  classes  in 
which  the  pupil  teacher  teaches  all  or  part  of  the  period  of  a  class 
of  which  he  is  a  regular  member,  or  in  lieu  of  the  latter  actual 
teaching  in  the  grades  under  direct  supervision.     All  observation 
and  practice  lessons  should  be  carefully  planned,     reviewed  and 
discussed.     The  teachers   giving  the   lessons   should   meet  subse- 
quently with  the  observers  in  order  to  aid  in  the  study  of  the 
aim  and  various  facts  of  the  lesson. 

The  pedagogical  instruction  should  be  given  in  classes  especially 
organized  for  that  object,  membership  being  restricted  to  those  hav- 
ing serious  purposes  of  fitting  themselves  for  teaching  in  the  grades 
and  country  schools.  In  order  to  give  clearer  direction  to  the  work 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING.  79 


different  members  of  the  committee  were  asked  to  make  brief  sug- 
gestive outlines  of  different  phases  of  the  work.  Dr.  W.  A.  Clark 
outlining  Course  1,  on  theory  and  principles;  Professor  W.  R.  Hart, 
Course  2  on  methods  and  management;  and  Professor  W.  R.  Jack- 
son the  course  on  observation  lessons.  The  outlines  are  intended  only 
to  be  suggestive  and  must  be  enlarged  and  filled  in  by  the  teacher.  Dr. 
Clark  has  outlined  only  the  last  half  of  Course  1.  It  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  first  133  pages  of  White's,  The  Art  of  Teaching;  or  some 
other  good  book  as  Roark's  Method  in  Education;  Page's  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Teaching;  Parker's  Talks  on  Teaching;  DeGarmo's  Es- 
sentials of  Method;  Hindale's  The  Art  of  Study;  McMurry's  The 
Method  of  the  Recitation;  Arnold's  Waymarks  for  Teachers;  Put- 
nam's Manual  of  Pedagogics,  etc. 

The  committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  pedagogical  work  herein 
outlined  should  cover  at  least  five  recitations  per  week  for  one  half 
year,  or  preferably  Course  1  two  hours  per  week  the  first  semester, 
followed  by  courses  2  and  3  at  least  three  hours  per  week  (three  reci- 
tations) the  second  semester  of  the  last  year  of  the  high  school  course. 

The  process  of  teaching  an  individual  how  to  teach  is  far  more 
difficult  than  the  ordinary  process  of  instruction  and  requires  scien- 
tific as  well  as  experiential  knowledge.  To  assign  this  work  to  a 
tyro  means  to  invite  failure  from  the  beginning.  The  teachers  of  this 
subject  should  have  had  actual  experience  in  the  fields  in  which 
these  pupil  teachers  are  preparing  to  enter  and  should  have  supple- 
mented their  experiential  knowledge  by  scientific  study  of  the  sub- 
jects they  are  to  teach.  Anything  short  of  this  should  be  discouraged 
by  everyone  interested  in  the  advancement  of  education. 

It  is  not  intended  that  this  course  of  professional  study  should 
be  accepted  in  any  sense  of  permanency.  It  has  seemed  to  the  com- 
mittee the  best  for  the  present  but  it  should  be  modified  as  time  and 
conditions  show  need  of  change. 

TEACHER'S  LIBRARY. 

There  should  be  a  teacher's  library  in  every  high  school  off  pi  (ng 
this  normal  instruction  of  not  less  than  twenty  books  such  as: 

Talks  on  Pedagogics,  F.  W.  Parker,  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 

Manual  of  Pedagogics,  D.  Putnam,  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

The  Art  of  Study,  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  American  Book  Co.  , 

The  Art  of  Teaching;  The  Elements  of  Pedagogy;  and  School  Man- 
agement; E.  E.  White,  American  Book  Co. 

Waymarks  for  Teachers,   Sarah  Louise  Arnold,   Silver,Burdett  & 
Co. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  D.  Page,  American  Book  Cu. 

Method  in  Education,  Ruric  N.  Roark,  American  Book  Co. 

Methods  of  Teaching;  and  School  Management,  A.  N.  Raub,  J.  M. 
Stradling  &  Co. 


80  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


Common  Sense  in  Education  and  Teaching,  P.  A.  Barnett,  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co. 

The  School  and  Society,  J.  Dewey,  McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 

The  Art  of  School  Management,  J.  Baldwin,  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

School  Supervision,  J.  L.  Pickard,  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

School  Supervision.  W.  H.  Payne,  American  Book  Co. 

The  Art  of  Teaching,  John  Ogden,  American  Book  Co. 

School  Management  and  Methods  of  Instruction,  George  Collar 
and  Chas.  W.  Crook,  Macmillan  Co. 

Great  American  Educators,  A.  E.  Winship,  American  Book  Co. 

Educational  Reformers,  H.  Quick,  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

The  Best  Methods  of  Teaching  in  Country  Schools,  G.  Dallas  Lind, 
Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldredge. 

Common  Sense  Didactics,  Henry  Sabin,  Rand  McNally  &  Co. 

The  Making  of  a  Teacher,  Martin  C.  Brumbaugh,  Sunday  School 
Times  Co. 

The  Essentials  of  Method,  Chas.  DeGarmo,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

The  Method  of  Education,  Chas.  and  Frank  McMurray,  Macmillan 
Co. 

The  Educative  Process,  W.  G.  Bagley. 

The  Theory  of  Teaching,  Albert  Salisbury,  Century  Pub.  Co. 

OUTLINES  OF  SPECIAL  TOPICS,  COURSE  1.     ' 
Theory  and  Principles   of  Education. 

Suggested  details  of  instruction: 

Fifteen  lessons  in  Methods  of  Teaching,  based  upon  White's  "El- 
ements of  Pedagogy,"  pages  133  to  310. 

1.  Preliminary  study  of  definitions,  pp.  133-138,  two  lessons. 

2.  General   methods    of   teaching   process,    pp.    138-139,    one 

lesson. 

3.  The  process  of  instruction,  pp.  140-144,  one  lesson. 

4.  The  nature  and  value  of  drill,  pp.  144-146,  one  lesson. 

5.  Examinations  and  tests,   pp.    147-148   and   193-209,   three 

lessons. 

6.  Text-books   and   oral   teaching,    pp.    149-163,    two   lessons. 

7.  The  recitation — design  and  conduct  of,  pp.  173-192,  three 

lessons. 

8.  Assigning  the  lesson,  pp.  166-172,  one  lesson. 

9.  School  Incentives,  a  critical  study,  pp.  320-327,  one  lesson. 
This  work  should  be  preceded  by  fifteen  lessons  from  some  good 

text-book  en  the  theory  and  principles  of  education  as  indicated  under 
General  Suggestions. 


>ng- 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING.  81 

COURSE    2. 
Methods  of  Instruction  and  Management. 

I.  THE  TEACHING  OP  PRIMARY  READING. 

a.  Aim  of  the  study. 

b.  Purpose  of  the  recitation. 

c.  Methods  of  assigning  lessons  and  conducting  recitations. 

d.  If  the  method  of  the  primary  is  based  on  form,  bring  out  the 

manner  of  passing  from  the  study  of  the  forms  of  words  to 
content. 

II.  READING  IN  THE  THIRD  GRADE  AND  ABOVE. 

a.  Aim  of  the  study. 

b.  Method  of  the  recitation. 

c.  Nature  and  amount  of  help  and  preparation. 

d.  Bring  out  reason  for  change  in  method,  if  any. 

III.  PRIMARY  LANGUAGE  LESSONS. 

a.  Ends  to  be  reached. 

b.  Material  to  be  used  as  a  basis. 

c.  Methods. 

d.  Oral  lessons. 

e.  Written  lessons. 

IV.  THE  TEACHING  OP  GRAMMAR. 

a.  Relation  of  grammar  to  reaaing,   to  language. 

b.  Aim  of  study. 

c.  Methods  and  principles  of  teaching. 

V.  THE   TEACHING  OP  GEOGRAPHY.    . 

a.  Aims. 

b.  Means. 

c.  Methods  of  study,  of  recitation. 

VI.  THE  TEACHING  OP  ARITHMETIC. 

a.  Nature  of  computing  compare:!  with  analysis. 

b.  Number  work  as  related  to  memory. 

c.  Analysis  as  related  to  imagination  and  reason. 

d.  Methods. 

VII.  THE  TEACHING  OP  U.  S.  HISTORY. 

a.  Biography. 

b.  Fiction  based  on  history. 

c.  Records  of  events. 

d.  Methods  of  study. 

e.  Methods  of  reciting. 

VIII.  REVIEWS,  TESTS  AND  EXAMINATIONS. 

a.  Purpose  of. 

b.  Scope  of. 

c.  Character  of. 

As  this  lesson     covers     the     same     ground     as       lesson     5     In 


82  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


Course  I,  it  is  suggested  that  it  be  omitted  and  that  a  lesson  in  prim- 
ary reading,  language  or  arithmetic  be  substituted. 

IX.  SCHOOL  VIRTUES  AND  MORAL  INSTRUCTION. 

a.  Promptness. 

b.  Regularity. 

c.  Industry. 

d.  Truthfulness. 

e.  Neatness. 

f.  Accuracy. 

g.  Politeness, 
h.   Obedience. 

(This  list  is  only  suggestive,  not  exhaustive). 

X.  SCHOOL  VICES  AND  DISCIPLINE. 

a.  The  opposites  of  the  above  list. 

b.  Whispering. 

c.  Talebearing. 

d.  Stealing. 

XI.  GOVERNMENT. 

a.  Aim  of  punishment. 

b.  Kinds  of  punishment. 

c.  Government  by  incentives. 

d.  Appeals  to  honor,  self  respect,  etc. 

XII.  BEGINNING  TO  TEACH. 

a.  Making  a  contract  and  what  it  means. 

b.  What  to  learn  of  the  school  before  the  first  day. 

c.  What  to  do  the  first  day. 

XIII.  CARE   OP   PROPERTY. 

a.   Text-books,  building  and  its  decoration,  public  library,  school 
grounds. 

XIV.  TEACHER'S   PREPARATION  AND   QUALITIES. 

a.  Acquired   knowledge. 

b.  Bodily  health. 

c.  Moral  habits. 

d.  Disposition  and  temperament. 

e.  Attitude  of  teacher  towards  non-school  interests. 

XV.  REVIEW  POINTS  OF  INTEREST  NOT  FULLY  BROUGHT  OUT 
IN  THE  PREVIOUS  LESSON. 

Note. 

The  foregoing  outline  of  work  in  Methods  of  Instruction  and  Man- 
agement is  based  on  Levi  Seeley's  New  School  Management  and  E.  E. 
White's  Art  of  Teaching.  The  subordinate  points  in  the  putline  are 
suggestive  only.  They  are  not  intended  to  restrict  the  teacher,  nor 
is  it  intended  that  all  sub-topics  should  be  exhausted.  The  lesson  ti- 
tles, however,  are  considered  sufficiently  vital  in  their  aim  as  to  be 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  83 


deemed  a  fair  working  basis  for  those  having  charge  of  this  work, 
to  approach  a  desirable  uniformity  in  the  amount  and  kind  of  work 
given  in  different  schools. 

The  order  in  which  the  lessons  are  taken  up  is  a  matter  for  each 
teacher  to  settle.  The  following  suggestion  is  offered: 

So  far  as  possible  a  good  arrangement  would  be  to  study  the 
lesson  in  method  in  connection  with  the  Common  Branch  which  is 
being  reviewed,  or  which  the  class  has  an  opportunity  of  observing  in 
the  grades.  The  lessons  in  management  should  be  grouped  if  possible. 

The  lesson  on  the  teacher  should  come  late  in  the  course. 

COURSE    3. 
Observation  Lessons. 
OUTLINE  FOR  DISCUSSION. 

The  following  outline  is  used  in  the  discussion  of  each  lesson 
taught.  It  is  to  be  worked  out  in  a  series  of  preliminary  discussions 
before  any  lesson  is  presented.  As  great  stress  is  placed  on  the  discus- 
sion as  on  the  lesson  itself,  the  lesson  may  take  twenty  minutes  and 
at  first  the  discussion  may  take  three  periods  of  forty-five  minutes. 
Without  discussion,  the  lesson  is  of  very  little  value. 

These  lessons  are  merely  suggestive  and  are  not  to  be  slavishly 
followed.  The  teacher  must  have  had  special  training  and  must  have 
originality  or  the  work  will  be  a  farce. 

These  lessons  are  but  twenty-five  out  of  about  170  well  correlated 
lessons  that  would  be  presented  in  a  thorough  normal  school;  hence 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  cannot  be  the  unity  or  continuity  that  might 
be  desired. 

I.  AIM. 

a.  What  was  it? 

b.  Was  it  carried  out? 

II.  SUBJECT  MATTER. 

a.  What  was  it? 

b.  Was  it  adapted  to  pupils? 

c.  Was  it  logical? 

d.  Was  it  definite? 

e.  Was  it  sufficient? 

f.  Was  it  comprehensive? 

III.  PRESENTATION. 

a.  Text  book. 

1.  Was  it  a  quiz,  or  was  it  an  explanation? 

b.  Lecture,  drill,  or  review? 

1.  How  was  it  conducted? 

2.  Was  it  mere  repetition  or  was  it  by  comparison? 

3.  How  might  it  have  been  conducted? 

IV.  DEVELOPMENT. 

a.   Preparation. 


84  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


b.  Presentation. 

c.  Comparison. 

d.  Generalization. 

e.  Application. 

V.  ASSIGNMENT. 

a.  What  was  its  object? 

b.  Was  it  an  opportunity  to  rethink  old  knowledge  or  was  it  for 

gaining  new  knowledge? 

VI.  CO-OPERATION. 

a.  Was  it  secured  and  how? 

b.  Was  it  through  friendship  and  sympathy? 

c.  Was  it  through  personality  of  teacher? 

d.  Was  it  through  interest  in  subject? 

e.  Was  it  through  interest  in  device? 

f.  Was  it  through  rivalry? 

g.  Was  it  through  fear  of  staying  after  school? 
h.  Was  it  through  fear  of  reprimand? 

i.  Was  it  through  fear  of  lowering  grade? 

j.  Were   all    given    an   opportunity   for   thought   before   one    was 

called  upon  to  voice  it,  or  was  but  one  given  the  opportunity 

to  think  the  answer? 
k.  Was  system  of  hand  raising  such  that  the  teacher  knew  the 

thought  of  each  pupil  on  ithe  question? 

VII.  A  STUDY   OP   INDIVIDUAL   CHILDREN. 

a.  What  pupils  got  the  work? 

b.  What  pupils  failed  to  get  the  work? 

c.  Was  failure  through  lack  of  sufficient  power  to  grasp  the  sub- 

ject, through  lack  of  interest,  through  lack  of  knowledge,  or 
on  account  of  physical  defect? 

d.  What  was  done  to  correct  the  wrong  habits  or  traits,  as  self- 

ishness, timidity,  conceit,  etc.? 

e.  What  was  done  to  encourage  good  habits? 

Suggestive   Lessons   for   Observation. 

Lesson  I. 

The  following  is  suggested  as  one  of  the  lessons  that  might  be 
given  as  one  of  the  first  lessons  in  reading,  using  "Action"  as  a  basis: 

Teacher — I  am  going  to  tell  Mary  to  do  something,  and  I  wonder 
if  you  can  guess  what  I  say.  (Teacher  whispers,  "You  may  run".) 
Perhaps  you  can  tell  the  exact  words  I  said  to  Mary? 

Child — You  may  run. 

Teacher — I  will  say  to  you,  without  saying  it  in  words,  exactly 
what  I  said  to  her.  How  do  you  think  I  will  say  it?  Yes,  I  will 
write  it  on  the  board.  (Teacher  writes — You  may  run).  Drill  by 
whispering  to  other  pupils  and  writing  sentences. 

Teacher — I  am  going  to  tell  someone  else  to  do  something  (Whis- 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING.  85 


pers  to  another  child.  "You  may  jump.")  (The  child  performs  the 
action).  I  will  tell  you  on  the  board  what  I  said  to  her.  (Writes 
"You  may  jump.")  Present  "You  may  fly"  in  the  same  way. 

Drill  by  writing     different  sentenes  and  having  the  acts  performed 
or  sentences  read,  or  child  whispering  to  teacher  to  write  any  one  of 
the  three  sentences  which  he  may  choose  to  have  acted. 
Lesson  II. 

After  the  children  have  been  in  school  a  few  weeks,  the  follow- 
ing lesson  might  be  given: 

A  drill  of  the  old  words  might  be  given  first:  See,  I,  pretty, 
jump,  can,  run,  like,  apple,  peach,  plum. 

Teacher  points  to  the  object  and  the  child  finds  the  word. 

Teacher  points  to  the  word  and  the  child  finds  the  object,   or, 
if  action  word,  performs  the  action. 
Subject-Matter. 

Kitty-kitty-kitty.  My  kitty  is  pretty.  My  kitty  can  jump.  My  kitty 
can  run.  I  like  my  kitty.  Run,  pretty  kitty.  (The  following  intro- 
duction might  be  given  to  this  lesson):  One  day  I  went  to  the  barn 
and  there  in  a  corner  I  found  something  in  a  basket.  It  was  just  this 
big.  (Teacher  shows  with  hands.)  It  was  all  covered  with  fur.  I  took 
it  out.  It  said  "Mew,mew."  What  do  you  suppose  it  was?  After  I 
went  to  the  house  I  called  to  my  kitty.  What  do  you  suppose  I  said. 
(Children  say  first  sentence.  Teacher  writes  first  sentence.)  Per- 
haps you  have  a  kitty  at  home.  If  so,  tell  us  something  about  yours. 
(Children  say,  My  kitty  is  pretty.)  Teacher  writes  the  sentence, 
pointing  to  the  word  "my"  saying  this  is  "my".  If  this  is  true  of  your 
kitty,  you  may  tell  me  of  yours.  Teacher — Tell  me  something  your 
kitty  can  do.  Children — My  kitty  can  jump..  (Teacher  writes  third 
sentence.)  What  is  it  this  sentence  says?  Whisper  to  me  something 
your  kitty  can  do.  (Teacher  writes  on  the  board  fourth  sentence.) 
Here  is  something  I  thought  about  your  kitty.  (Teacher  writes  fifth 
sentence.)  If  this  is  true  tell  it  to  me.  We  have  some  new  words. 
What  are  they?  "My"  and  "kitty."  Have  drill  on  the  new  words  and 
the  old  ones  that  bothered. 
Lesson  III.  Lesson  in  Phonetics. 

After  the  children  have  been  in  school  a  few  weeks  begin  work  by 
long  pronunciation.  Bring  me  the  b-e-1-1.  You  may  r-u-n.  When 
the  child  is  proficient  in  this,  take  words  known  by  sight  and  have 
pupils  pronounce  by  long  pronunciation.  As  the  child  makes  the  sound 
the  teacher  writes  the  letter  having  the  sound.  Take  the  let- 
ters from  the  word  and  write  on  one  side  of  the  board  for  drill 
later  in  the  work.  Take  phonograms  learned,  as:  one,  an,  it,  ite, 
etc.  Take  list  of  words  not  known  by  the  child,  as:  it,  fan,  cane, 
bite,  etc.,  and  have  the  pupils  study  out  the  word  by  first  giving  the 
sound  of  "it"  and  then  the  sound  of  "b".  Next  blend  the  sounds  rapidly 
giving  the  word.  Do  the  same  with  all  the  list  of  words. 


86  NORMAL,  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


LESSON  IV.  Same  class  as  in  Lesson  II.  Show  how  to  change 
from  script  to  print  in  reading. 

LESSON  V.  Third  grade  reading  lesson.  Show  the  introduc- 
tion, how  to  gain  the  thought  and  feeling,  work  in  voice,  force, 
emphasis,  inflection. 

LESSON  VI.  Show  how  to  dramatize  old  subject  matter  and  new 
subject  matter. 

LESSON  VII.  Show  how  thought  and  feeling  may  be  worked 
out  by  busy  work,  such  as  clay  moulding,  paper  cutting,  stick  laying, 
etc. 

LESSON  VIII.  An  advanced  grade  reading  lesson.  Bring  out  the 
same  as  in  Lesson  V. 

LESSON  IX.  Lesson  in  first  grade  numbers,  to  show  values  and 
notation  of  same. 

LESSON  X.  Second  grade.  Develop  combinations.  Drill  on 
addition,  etc.,  tables. 

LESSON  XI.  Lesson  to  third  grade  in  bundling  to  show  how 
to  present  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  or  division. 

LESSON  XII.  In  the  fourth  grade.  Develop  addition  of  frac- 
tions objectively  as  on  page  14,  "Method  of  Recitation." 

LESSON  XIII.     Develop  decimals  to  sixth  grade. 

LESSON  XIV.     Develop  lesson  in  percentage  to   seventh   grade. 

LESSON  XV.  First  grade  spelling,  showing  manner  of  presenta- 
tion and  drill. 

LESSON  XVI.  Advanced  grade  in  spelling  showing  manner  of 
presentation,  use  of  dictionary,  etc. 

LESSON  XVII.  Third  grade,  show  the  study  of  pictures  pre- 
paratory to  written  lesson.  Show  how  to  arouse  thought  and  to 
make  composition  logical,  etc. 

LESSON  XVIII.  In  the  fourth  grade  a  study  of  a  selection  by 
interpretation.  (Page  57,  "Lessons  in  English,"  by  Skinner). 

LESSON  XIX.     Lesson  on  letter  writing  to  the  fourth  grade. 

LESSON  XX.     Lesson  showing  how  to  write  original  stories. 

LESSON  XXI.  Lessons  in  nature  study,  specimen  present  show- 
ing how  to  present  this  work  to  cultivate  observation.  (Page  86, 
Special  Method  in  Science,  McMurry). 

LESSON  XXII.  One  field  lesson  showing  how  to  teach  physical 
features  in  geography.  (Page  200,  Waymarks  for  Teachers,  Arnold). 

LESSON  XXIII.     One  lesson  in  map  drawing  and  map  reading. 

LESSON  XXIV.  Lesson  in  fifth  grade  geography  based  on  re- 
lief and  position  of  continent,  showing  from  these  how  to  deduce 
climate,  productions  and  industries,  etc. 

LESSON    XXV.     Lesson    showing    how    to    present    a    lesson    in 


PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING.  87 


travel,  in  any  grade. 
Committee: 

G.  W.  A.  Luckey,  University  of  Nebraska, 

W.  A.  Clark,  State  Normal  School,  Kearney, 

W.  R.  Hart,  State  Normal  School,  Peru, 

W.  R.  Jackson,  Nebraska  Wesleyan  University. 

C     ADDITIONAL  LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING. 


We  are  pleased  to  include  here  an  additional  list  of  books  on  profes- 
sional training-  recommended  by  Charlotte  Templeton,  Secretary  of  the 
Nebraska  Library  Commission. 

List 
Price 

Adler,  Felix,  Moral  Instruction  of  Children Appleton          $  1  50 

Arnold,  S.  L.     Reading-:     How  to  Teach  It Silver  Burdett     1  00 

Bag-ley,  W.  G.     Educative  Process Macmillan  1  25 

Bryant,  S.  C.     How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children Houg-hton  1  00 

Burrage  &  Bailey.     School  Sanitation  and  Decoration  Heath  1  50 

Call,  A.  P.     Power  Through  Repose.    New  ed Little  1  00 

Chubb,  Percival.     Teaching  of    English    in  the    Ele- 
mentary and  Secondary  School Macmillan  1  00 

lark,  S.  H.     How  to  Teach  Reading  in  Public  Schools.   Scott  .     100 

DeGarmo.     Interest  and  Education Macmillan  1  00 

Dewey,  John.     School  and  Society McClure  1  00 

Froebel,  F.  Education  of  Man Appleton  1  50 

Hanus,  P.  H.     A  Modern  School Macmillan  1  25 

Henderson,  C.  H.     Education  and  the  Larger  Life...  Houghton  1  30 

Hodge,  C.  F.     Nature  Study  and  Life Ginn  1  50 

James,  William.     Talks  to   Teachers  on  Psychology. .   Holt  1  50 

Kern,  O.  J.     Among  Country  Schools Ginn  1  25 

McMurry,  C.  A.     Elements  of  General  Method Macmillan  90 

McMurry  &  McMurry.     Method  of  the  Recitation.  ...  Macmillan  90 

McMurry,  C,  A.     Special    Method  in  Geography  from 

3  and  8  Grades Macmillan  70 

Salisbury,  Albert.     Theory  of  Teaching. Century  1  22 

Shaw,  E.  R.    School  Hygiene Macmillan  1  00 

Sherman  &  Reed.  The  Essentials  of  Teaching  Reading  Uni.  Pub.  Co.     1  15 

Wray,  A.     Jean  Mitchell's  School Pub.  Sch. 

Pub.  Co.   1  00 

SUGGESTED  PLAN  FOB  OBSERVATION  WORK. 

REVIEW   SUBJECTS  AND  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

It  is  conceded   that   observation  work   must  have   an   important 
place  in  the  professional  training  which  is  to  be  given  to  the  students 


88  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


in  the  normal  training  course  of  our  high  schools.  The  question  has 
been  raised  by  many  superintendents  as  to  when  this  observation  work 
can  be  done  the  most  profitably.  In  answer  to  this  question  the 
following  plan  is  suggested: 

The  class  entering  upon  a  review  of  reading,  for  example,  pursues 
the  academic  work  for  a  period  of  two  weeks  and  two  days.  On  Wednes- 
day of  the  third  week,  the  teacher  lectures  on  the  art  of  teaching  read- 
ing in  the  primary  grades.  On  Thursday  the  student-teachers  observe 
the  teaching  of  reading  in  the  primary  grades,  taking  notes  for  discus- 
sion the  following  day  in  accordance  with  the  outline  given  under  the 
head  of  the  professional  training  in  this  bulletin.  On  Friday  the  obser- 
vation lesson  of  the  previous  day  is  discussed. 

During  the  fourth  and  fifth  weeks  and  Monday  and  Tuesday  of 
the  sixth  week  the  work  to  be  purely  academic.  On  Wednesday  of  the 
sixth  week  the  teacher  lectures  on  the  teaching  of  reading  in  the  inter- 
mediate grades.  On  Thursday  the  class  observes  the  teaching  of 
reading  in  the  intermediate  grades,  taking  notes.  On  Friday  the 
observation  lesson  of  the  previous  day  is  discussed. 

During  the  seventh  and  eighth  weeks  and  Monday  and  Tuesday 
of  the  ninth  week  the  work  again  is  purely  academic.  On  Wednesday 
of  the  ninth  week  the  teacher  lectures  on  the  art  of  teaching  reading 
in  the  grammar  grades.  On  Thursday  the  student-teachers  observe 
the  teaching  of  reading  in  the  grammar  grades,  and  on  Friday  the 
observation  lesson  of  the  previous  day  is  discussed. 

This  plan  may  be  successfully  adapted  to  the  review  of  arith- 
metic, geography  and  grammar,  and  to  the  study  of  American  History. 
If  the  work  is  pursued  in  accordance  with  this  plan,  it  seems  to  me  the 
student-teacher  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  make  a  good  showing 
in  the  final  examination  on  these  subjects,  in  which  at  least  three  of 
the  questions  are  based  on  the  teaching  phase  of  the  subject. 
Schools  giving  more  than  nine  weeks  to  the  review  subjects  may 
use  this  plan  by  giving  the  same  proportionate  amount  of  time 
to  lectures,  observation  work,  and  discussions. 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  time  devoted  to  the  professional 
study  of  the  review  subjects  and  to  American  history  is  not  to  be  de- 
ducted from  the  required  seventy-two  periods  of  pedagogy  (profes- 
sional training),  except  that  for  each  review  subject  carried  twelve 
or  more  weeks  n  the  twelfth  grade,  or  for  American  history  carried 
twenty-four  or  more  weeks  in  the  twelfth  grade,  a  credit  of  eight 
periods  in  pedagogy  (professional  training)  will  be  given. 

I.  A.  DOWNEY, 

Inspector. 


(Addresses,  Papers  and  Discussions 


On 


^formal  Training  in  High  Schools 


And 


Other  cMatters  of  Educational  Interest 


Teachers  and  Prospective  Teachers 


Normal  Training  in  High  Schools 


Superintendent  B.   H.   dlraliam,   AV.vmoie. 

The  superiority  of  the  modern  Normal  schools  over  those  founded 
in  early  times,  or  other  educational  institutions  for  the  instruction  and 
training  of  teachers,  must  rest  after  a  reasonable  degree  of  scholar- 
ship upon  the  practce  or  training  school  idea.  Eliminate  this  feature 
and  you  may  have  a  school  or  college  of  pedagogy,  but  not  a  teachers' 
normal  school.  We  would  repeat  that  preceding  the  normal  training 
of  all  teachers,  there  must  be  a  requirement  for  a  reasonable  scholar- 
ship upon  the  practice  or  training  school  idea.  -Eliminate  this  feature 
a  brief  investigation  of  the  courses  of  study  in  those  institutions  which 
issue  two  year  permits  in  Nebraska,  we  would  suggest  that  this  re- 
quirement for  scholarship  had  better  be  increased  than  remain  at 
the  present  maximum  requirement.  Only  a  few  years  experience  in 
the  position  of  superintendent  or  principal, '  impresses  one  with  the 
fact  that  scholarship  on  the  part  of  teachers  covers  a  multitude  of 
weak  points. 

Our  Peru  State  Normal  does  not  admit  pupils  to  the  training  or 
practice  year  until  they  have  had  two  or  more  years  work  in  a  good  high 
school.  This  means  that  the  candidate  must  have  pursued  studies 
covering  at  least  fifteen  points  credit  found  in  the  average  high  school. 
In  addition  to  these  fifteen  points  credit,  the  pupils  are  given  a  review 
in  eight  of  the  common  branches,  but  the  work  in  four  of  these  eight 
studies,  is  credited  by  the  University  and  Colleges  of  Nebraska  when 
pursued  in  high  schools.  This  makes  a  maximum  amount  of  thirteen 
points  credit  outside  of  the  common  branches  as  a  basis  for  granting 
a  two  year  permit  to  teach,  or  a  sum  total  of  not  to  exceed  eighteen 
high  school  credits.  In  addition  to  this,  the  above  mentioned  school 
requires  five  hours  recitation  work  per  week  in  the  observation  and 
training  school  for  thirty-six  weeks.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  stu- 
dent teachers  at  this  state  institution  have  for  preparation  sixteen 
lessons  per  week,  and  twenty-one  hours  recitation,  five  of  which  is 
practice  or  observation  work. 

One  of  the  sectarian  colleges  of  Nebraska  requires  eleven  points 
of  high  school  work,  and  four  additional  points,  two  in  botany  and 
two  in  physics,  being  optional,  and  reviews  in  six  of  the  common 


*Paper  read  by  R.  H.  Graham,  of  the  Wymore  city  schools  at  the 
Southeastern  Nebraska  educational  Association  at  Beatrice,  April, 
1906. 


94  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


branches  for  a  two  year  certificate.  This  school  issues  these  two 
year  permits  on  a  minimum  of  twelve  points  of  high  school  work,  and 
the  above  mentioned  reviews,  together  with  practice  teaching  and  criti- 
cism five  hours  a  week  for  thirty-six  weeks.  Students  in  this  course 
have  eighteen  hours  preparation  per  week.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  pu- 
pils completing  the  common  school  course  from  the  eighth  grade  can 
enter  this  course;  a  more  lenient  requirement  than  is  offered  at  the 
Peru  State  Normal. 

In  two  of  the  private  normals  of  Nebraska,  pupils  from  the  eighth 
grade  may  enter  what  they  call  their  "Two  Year  State  Certificate 
Course."  In  these  two  year  courses,  one  gives  twelve  and  the  other 
thirteen  points  that  are  the  equivalent  of  high  school  credits  recog- 
nized by  higher  institutions.  In  addition  they  give  agriculture  and 
reviews  in  eight  of  the  common  branches.  The  reviews  in  mental  and 
written  arithmetic  are  repeated  for  two  terms.  In  one  of  these 
normals,  pupils  are  permitted  to  carry  twenty-seven  hours  per  week 
besides  two  hours  per  week  in  physical  culture. 

This  brief  review  of  the  courses  of  study  in  those  institutions 
issuing  two-year  certificates  reveals  the  fact  that  these  two-year  per- 
mits, up  to  the  present  year  at  least,  are  based  on  scholarship  ranging 
from  two  to  three  years'  work  in  accredited  high  schools  of  Nebraska. 
None  of  these  institutions  require  practice  teaching  and  criticism  to 
exceed  five  hours  per  week  for  thirty-  six  weeks.  Please  remember 
that  reference  to  the  scholarship  obtained  has  to  do  with  the  two 
year  permits  or  certificates,  and  not  life  certificates. 

Can  the  four  year  high  schools  throughout  the  state  meet  the 
above  requirements,  first  in  scholarship?  And  if  they  can  meet  the  re- 
quirements, do  conditions  throughout  the  state  justify  a  course  in 
Normal  Training  in 'those  institution^  having  a  full  four  years  high 
school  course? 

As  previously  stated  the  scholarship  of  a  teacher  will  in  many 
emergencies  cover  a  multitude  of  weaknesses.  Mind,  matter  and  method 
are  factors  with  which  educational  thought  has  to  do;  yet  method 
without  a  mind  well  trained  in  systematizing  and  differentiating  the 
matter  at  its  command  is  like  a  ship  without  a  rudder.  So  the  query, 
can  our  four  year  high  school  graduates  with  from  twenty-five  to  forty 
per  cent  more  scholarship  than  those  meeting  the  requirements  for  a 
two  year  certificate,  and  then  with  from  eighteen  to  tliirty-six  weeks 
study  in  methods,  as  well  as  practice  teaching  given  by  experienced  and 
well-qualified  high  school  teachers  as  required  by  the  new  law  going 
into  effect  in  1907 — can  our  graduates  with  this  scholarship  and  train- 
ing, on  writing  the  examination — be  granted  a  certificate  to  teach  in 
our  rural  schools? 

The  recommendation  made  by  our  State  Superintendent  in  con- 
junction with  a  committee  appointed  by  him,  was  certainly  conserva- 


ADDRESSES,   PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSION^  95 

^         .i; 


tive  in  limiting  Normal  Training  to  those  schools  carrying  a  full  four 
years  course,  and  employing  three  regular  teachers  or  instructors 
besides  the  Superintendent.  By  inquiry,  it  is  ascertained  that  these 
four  year  schools  graduate  pupils  on  a  basis  of  from  twenty-six  to 
thirty  University  credits,  and  with  from  two  to  four  points  high  school 
credits,  the  latter  being  based  on  a  review  of  the  common  branches. 
Now  with  five  hours  per  week  devoted  to  a  study  of  methods  in  the 
various  branches  as  they  are  reviewed,  and  observation  work  in 
the  grade  departments  and  some  practice  teaching,  we  venture  the 
assertion  that  these  graduates  will  be  equal  in  equipment  to  those  hold- 
ing two  year  permits.  Remember  that  with  equal  or  better  scholar- 
ship, the  step  toward  high  school  Normal  Training  does  not  a,sk  that 
such  pupils  be  given  a  two  year  permit,  or  be  exempt  from  examination 
but  that  on  evidence  of  a  minimum  amount  of  professional  work  being 
completed,  the  plan  proposed  does  ask  that  these  student  teachers  be 
allowed  to  take  an  examination,  and  let  the  results  of  that  examination 
be  the  best  evidence  of  their  fitness  to  teach. 

The  question  has  been  raised  that  the  time  required  to  do  tlu-3 
professional  work  will  not  permit  the  completion  of  as  many  Universi- 
ty credits  as  has  been  mentioned  above  and  as  is  now  completed  by  the 
average  four  year  high  school.  This  may  be  true  of  those  taking  Nor- 
mal Training,  but  it  need  not  be  true  of  those  who  contemplate  enter- 
ing a  college  or  university.  Those  not  desiring  to  teach  need  not 
take  the  Normal  Training,  but  can  continue  the  regular  college  accred- 
ited course.  It  can  be  said  with  equal  emphasis,  that  those  who  cannot 
take  up  a  regular  college  course  and  whose  school  life  must  end  on 
their  high  school  graduation,  that  they  can  take  up  Normal  Training, 
or  substitute  ten  hours  work  per  week  of  this  training  instead  of  thoso 
subjects  that  especially  prepare  for  college,  and  in  the  end  are  infi- 
nitely better  prepared  to  teach  than  if  they  had  adhered  strictly  to 
the  college  accredited  course.  And  in  the  event  of  substituting  Nor- 
mal Training  to  the  extent  of  ten  hours  per  week  in  their  senior  year, 
these  student  teachers  will  lose  not  to  exceed  four  college  credits,  and 
their  work  in  the  History  of  Education,  elementary  Mental  science, 
and  a  study  of  methods,  will  largely  compensate  for  the  omission  of 
Vergil,  Chemistry,  or  some  other  subject  that  prepares  for  college  en- 
trance only.  So  the  "stock-in-trade"  argument  that  our  high  school 
course  will  be  weakened  in  that  we  cannot  as  adequately  prepare  those 
desiring  to  enter  college  is  not  well  taken.  The  plan  will  only  help 
to  enrich,  broaden,  and  differentiate  our  courses  of  study  to  suit  and 
meet  the  demands  of  individual  students.  It  is  time  that  our  high 
schools  were  so  differentiating  their  work  that  they  may  give  some 
preparation  to  those  who  are  compelled  to  earn  a  living  on  leaving 
their  home  school,  as  well  as  manifest  solicitude  for  those  who  are 
financially  able  to  enter  college.  If  a  high  school  devotes  one-eighth 


96  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


of  its  efforts  only,  to  a  utilitarian  purpose,  and  that  by  training  pupils 
to  teach,  it  is  by  no  means  a  sign  of  deterioration  in  ideals  or  standards. 

The  spirit  of  the  new  law  requiring  that  all  candidates  to  teach 
have  a  minimum  amount  of  Professional  Training,  is  to  raise  the 
standard  of  teachers'  qualifications  in  the  rural  schools.  The  plan  of 
permitting  the  high  schools  of  a  certain  standard,  to  do  this  work, 
will  assist  in  bringing  about  the  desired  result.  In  as  much  as  Normal 
Training  is  limited  to  those  pupils  of  the  twelfth  grade,none  but  grad- 
uates will  go  directly  from  the  high  schools  to  teach.  In  previous 
years,  pupils  have  discontinued  their  work  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
grades,  have  obtained  a  third  grade,  and  in  many  instances  a  second 
grade  certificate  to  begin  teaching.  According  to  the  recommendation 
of  the  committee  none  but  those  in  the  graduating  year  of  a  four  year 
high  school  course  shall  receive  credit  for  Normal  Training. 

By  a  circular  letter  to  County  Superintendents  in  middle  and  west- 
ern Nebraska,  it  was  ascertained  that  four-fifths  of  the  rural  teachers 
enter 'their  work  of  teaching  on  graduation  from  some  one  of  the  town 
schools  of  their  county.  And  of  these  four-fifths,  many  are  gradu- 
ates from  a  three  year,  and  some  from  a  two  year  high  school  course. 
It  is  this  condition  that  the  new  law  seeks  to  remedy.  By  its  pro- 
visions eight  weeks  Normal  training  is  necessary  to  obtain  a  second 
grade  certificate,and  twelve  weeks  is  the  requirement  for  a  first  grade 
certificate.  But  Normal  training  is  restricted  to  four  year  high  schools, 
and  only  the  graduates  of  these  are  given  credit  for  the  professional 
work  done.  So  unless  pupils  from  a  three  year  course  of  study  or 
less  attend  some  one  of  the  Normals  for  the  minimum  time  mentioned 
above,  they  will  be  excluded  from  entering  the  work  of  teaching.  Thus 
the  proposed  plan  will  in  a  measure  meet  the  demand  for  better  trained 
teachers  in  our  rural  schools.  At  the  same  time  it  will  tend  to  hold 
in  school  until  they  graduate,  those  who  never  expect  to  do  any  more 
than  meet  the  minimum  requirements. 

One  question  asked  in  a  circular  letter  to  city  superintendents 
was,  do  you  consider  the  opportunities  for  observation  work  as  good 
in  your  grade  departments  as  in  a  Normal  School.  Of  the  fifteen  an- 
swering, all  were  of  the  opinion  that  the  opportunities  for  observing 
organization  and  discipline  were  much  better  in  a  real  school  than  in 
a  practice  school.  One  superintendent  gave  the  following  reasons: 
because  the  student  teachers  can  see  all  the  grades  at  work;  con- 
ditions are  normal  as  they  are  those  of  a  real  and  not  an  ideal  school; 
the  pupils  do  not  know  that  they  are  being  inspected;  the  teachers 
know  the  student  teachers  and  can  give  them  many  valuable  sug- 
tions  on  organization  and  discipline. 


(  UNIVERSITY 

V  r^f 


Should  Pedagogy  Have  a  Permanent  Place 
In  the  High  School  Course? 


Professor  W.  R.  Hart,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Amherst  College. 

Each  one's  answer  to  this  question  will  be  colored  by  his  personal 
bias.  The  answers  themselves  will  reveal  a  graduated  scale  of  opin- 
ions beginning  with  a  vehement  "No"  with  a  big  N,  and  shading  off 
with  a  qualified  "I  think  not",  "I  believe  not",  "I'm  not  sure",  "Per- 
haps it  ought",  "It  may  under  stress  of  conditions",  "It  may  under 
proper  restrictions",  "I  believe  it  "should",  "I  think  it  should"  finally 
ending  in  an  emphatic  "Yes"  with  a  big  Y.  "No"  and  "Yes"  repre- 
sent the  poles  of  opinion  and  between  them  may  be  formed  all  shades 
of  modified  negatives  blending  with  a  nebulous  mass  of  qualified  affirm- 
atives. 

For  Nebraska  educators  this  problem  is  still  without  form  and 
void.  May  the  spirit  born  of  a  restudy  of  what  education  means  and 
what  the  function  of  the  high  school  is,  move  upon  the  face  of  the 
deep  and  dispel  the  darkness  in  which  we  now  grope!  We  are  more  in 
need  of  light  just  now  than  we  are  of  heat. 

No  answer  to  the  Problem  of  Pedagogy  in  the  High  School  can 
be  considered  other  than  temporary  and  provisional  that  does  not 
take  into  account  at  least  the  underlying  thought  of  the  following 
propositions: 

First,  The  community  has  an  inherent  right  to  the  best  service  of 
its  own  institutions. 

Second,  Every  person  whose  school  nurture  approximates  a 
reasonable  maturity  in  point  of  age,  is  of  right  entitled  to  some  instruct- 
tion  in  the  meaning  of  educational  theory  and  practice  before  being- 
thrown  upon  his  own  resources.  These  two  propositions  are  no',  ex- 
haustive of  all  that  should  be  considered  as  fundamental  to  a.  com- 
prehensive discussion  of  the  problem  before,  us.  These  propositions 
may  not  be  sufficiently  self-evident  as  to  be  accepted  without  question, 
not  to  say  controversy.  They  are  cited  however  for  whatever  of 
truth  they  may  contain  and  also  as  a  basis  for  what  few  words  1  may 
add  to  the  discussion  of  the  question  touching  the  permanency  of 
Pedagogy  as  a  high  school  study.  They  will  be  discussed  in  order. 

Prepared  for  the  High  School  Section  of  the  Nebraska  State  Teachers' 
Association,  December  27,  1906.  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  by  W.  R.  Hart,  A.  M., 
then  professor  of  psychology  and  pedagogy,  State  Normal  School,  Peru, 
Nebraska, 


98  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


The  first  proposition,  namely,  the  right  of  the  community  to  the 
best  service  of  its  own  institutions,  raises  the  question  of  the  function 
of  that  educational  agency,  the  marvel  of  our  times,  the  modern  high 
school.  The  American  public  high  school  is  unique  in  two  very  impor- 
tant respects.  First,  the  impulse  of  an  enlightened  school  sentiment 
which  gave  it  being,  demanding  an  education  at  public  expense  in  ad- 
vance of  the  traditional  common  school.  Second,  the  influence  of  col- 
lege ideals  which  have  given  form  and  body  to  its  course  of  study. 
Yes,  more  than  form  and  body  to  its  course  of  study — college  ideals 
and  influence  have  given  to  the  high  schools  a  body  of  teachers  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  sound  education,  teachers  sensible  of  their  responsi- 
bility for  giving  efficiency  to  this  one  factor  of  the  state's  educational 
machinery.  This  last  named  fact  of  a  responsible  and  trained  teacher- 
ship  for  the  Nebraska  high  schools  is  ample  justification  for  all  the 
college  influence  that  has  been  exerted  by  the  colleges  on  the  lower 
schools.  The  place  of  the  high  school  in  the  general  course  of  instruct- 
tion  is  probably  fixed  for  centuries  to  come  as  a  crowning  advance  upon 
the  common  schools  of  our  fathers.  Its  function,  however,  is  still  a 
debatable  question. 

The  functon  of  the  high  school  in  our  scheme  of  education  can- 
not be  settled  in  one  debate,  nor  yet  in  a  decade.  We  may  consider 
ourselves  progressing  fairly  well  if  we  reach  a  settlement  that  will 
stay  put,  within  a  quarter  of  a  century.  More  interests  are  involved 
in  the  permanent  settlement  of  the  function  of  the  high  school  than 
have  as  yet  had  a  hearing  in  the  controversy.  A  decision  without  a 
hearing  from  all  interests  concerned  must  result  in  what  the  lawyers 
call  a  re-hearing,  because  some  parties  in  interest  have  not  had  their 
day  in  court.  This  is  why  our  high  school  course  of  study  will  not  stay 
settled. 

There  are  at  least  five  factors  to  be  taken  into  account  in  deter- 
mining the  function  of  the  modern  high  school;  First,  the  schools  above 
the  high  school;  second  the  schools  below  the  high  school;  third,  the 
membership  of  the  high  school;  fourth,  the  occupational  life  of  the 
community;  fifth,  the  tax-paying  supporters  of  all  these  schools.  And 
as  a  self  educating  people  we  are  rapidly  approaching  if  not  actually  con- 
fronting the  problem  of  whether  or  not  we  shall  have  one  high  school 
with  a  number  of  functions,  or  a  number  of  high  schools  in  the  same 
community  each  having  a  single  function.  This  confirms  me  in  tb*» 
belief  that  we  are  not  dealing  with  a  temporary  makeshift  to  meet  an 
emergency,  but  are  in  the  midst  of  an  upheavel  the  tremor  of  which 
will  not  subside  till  the  whole  problem  of  secondary  education  has 
been  restudied  from  new  view  points.  Traditions  as  to  what  has  been 
and  definitions  based  thereon  are  less  valuable  for  clear  thinking  just 
now  than  are  a  deep  sympathy  and  a  broad  interpretation  of  the  com- 
plex life  we  are  now  in.  A  basis  of  common  right  must  be  found  for 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS.  99 


diverse  educational  interests  that  now  seem  to  be  antagonistic.  To  put 
aside  the  matter  as  a  question  that  is  settled  only  delays  the  day  of 
our  own  undoing.  Fixity  in  a  great  school  organization  becomes  a 
handicap.  Flexibility  and  adaptation  to  present  and  prospective  needs 
is  the  true  measure  of  the  vitality  and  worth  of  any  human  institution. 

The  university  had  a  hearing  more  than  fifteen  years  ago  and  won 
on  practically  every  point.  The  high  schools  became  at  once  prepara- 
tory schools.  The  tax  paying  factor  responded  to  the  increased  burden 
generously,  but  here  and  there  a  protest  was  lodged  against  what 
seemed  to  some  a  snap  judgment,  and  the  university  has  yielded  some 
to  the  pre-empted  ground,  not  in  quantity  but  in  the  matter  of  flex- 
ibility. 

Just  now  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  our  state  is  another 
factor,  the  schools  below  the  high  school,  getting  a  hearing.  The 
great  common  school  of  the  state  through  its  superintendency  stands 
with  outstretched  hands  appealing  to  the  high  school  for  aid  in  re- 
turn for  the  humble  service  of  being  its  foundation  and  support.  Will 
the  high  school  give  it  bread  or  will  it  give  it  a  stone? 

Stating  the  case  briefly  and  broadly  in  behalf  of  the  common 
school,  the  least  that  may  be  said  is  that  the  common  school  may 
demand  of  the  high  school  the  same  nurture  in  the  form  of  a  qualified 
teaching  force  that  the  high  school  may  demand  of  the  college.  To 
answer  this  by  saying  the  preparation  of  teachers  is  the  function  of 
the  normal  school  is  simply  to  prejudge  the  case  against  the  high 
school. 

Function  as  such  is  not  inherent  in  the  high  school  or  in  any 
other  school  for  that  matter.  A  school  becomes  functionally  what 
ever  its  creators  choose  to  make  it.  When*  a  school  adopts  a  course  of 
study  leading  to  college  entrance  it  begins  at  once  to  perform  the 
function  of  preparing  students  to  enter  college.  When  a  school  adopts 
a  course  of  study  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Laws  it  imme- 
diately begins  the  function  of  preparing  candidates  for  the  practice  of 
that  profession.  So  with  a  school  of  medicine.  So  with  a  school 
of  pedagogy.  So  with  a  school  of  commerce.  And  I  can  see  no  in- 
consistency in  bestowing  two  or  more  of  these  functions  upon  the  same 
school, — a  thing  in  fact  with  which  we  are  all  more  or  less  familiar. 
Already  many  of  our  high  schools  not  only  prepare  students  to  enter 
college,  but  to  enter  some  of  the  more  simple  callings  of  active  life. 
And  may  not  teaching  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the  country  with 
statistical  propriety  be  called  a  common  calling  of  our  high  school 
pupils?  Will  the  better  equipment  of  these  pupils  be  the  result  of  local, 
pressure  upon  the  devotees  of  tradition,  or  will  it  be  the  result  of^  en- 
lightened leadership;  a  leadership  which  sees  in  our  present  scheme  of 
organization  such  elements  of  sustenance  and  growth  that  each  part 
may  be  made  to  contribute  strength  to  the  whole;  a  leadership  that 


100  NORMAL,  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


will  make  of  the  high  school  the  same  sort  of  stimulant  for  the 
elementary  school  which  the  college  has  proven  itself  to  be  for  the 
high  school;  a  leadership  that  will  make  the  present  educational 
agencies  mutually  helpful  to  each  other,  thereby  bringing  service  to  a 
maximum  while  keeping  the  expense  at  a  minimum. 

The  university  performs  its  highest  service  to  the  state  in  the 
trained  teachers  sent  into  the  high  schools,  and  the  high  school  will 
perform  its  best  service  to  the  community  when  it  sends  a  body  of  its 
graduates  into  the  elementary  schools  trained  to  teach.  Thus  will  the 
community  receive  its  right  and  the  high  school  fulfill  a  function  no 
less  high  than  that  of  preparing  students  for  college,  or  for  business. 

The  second  general  proposition  to  which  I  would  call  your  atten- 
tion is  the  right  of  every  person  whose  school  nurture  approximates  a 
reasonable  maturity  in  point  of  age  to  be  given  some  instruction  in  the 
theory  and  practice  of  education.  This  statement  includes  much  more 
than  is  included  in  the  question  as  to  whether  pedagogy  is  in  the  high 
school  to  stay  or  not.  The  proposition  may  on  that  account  be  less 
readily  assented  to  but  in  my  opinion  no  less  defensible,  because  I 
have  come  to  look  upon  the  question  under  discussion  as  being  only  a 
part,  and  the  smaller  part  at  that,  of  the  larger  problem  in  which  it  is 
involved,  namely,  whether  or  not  the  study  of  education  should  be  of- 
fered to  all  students  whose  school  life  ends  with  the  high  school. 

The  claim  of  the  individual  about  to  graduate  from  the  high 
school  to  the  instruction  in  the  theory  and  art  of  education  can  be 
justified  by  the  following  considerations:  first,  the  fact  that  so  large  a 
per  cent,  of  students  cease  their  school  attendance  at  the  close  of  the 
high  school  course;  second,  the  fact  that  the  student  of  the  twelfth 
grade  is  mature  enough  to  understand  some  interpretation  of  the 
work  of  the  eleven  previous  years  of  his  school  life;  third,  that  nearly 
40  per  cent,  of  the  graduates  are  quite  sure  to  become  teachers  while 
more  than  90  per  cent,  are  just  as  sure  to  become  parents.  These 
points  are  somewhat  interdependent  and  the  development  of  each  by 
argument  and  illustration  would  extend  this  discussion  beyond  a  rea- 
sonable limit. 

The  first  of  these  points  raises  the  old  question  as  to  whether  the 
high  school  should  be  made  primarily  to  serve  those  who  intend  to 
continue  their  education  in  some  higher  school,  and  incidentally  to 
serve  those  whose  school  life  ceases  at  the  end  of  the  high  school 
course  or  vice  versa.  Preparation  for  college  and  preparation  for  life 
have  been  the  slogans  of  the  respective  parties  to  this  controversy 
for  some  time.  Th  debate  at  times  waxes  warm.  Tradition  and 
inertia  favor  the  "preparation  for  college"  ideal.  Applied  knowledge 
and  innovation  favor  the  "preparation  for  life"  ideal.  I  shall  ever  recall 
with  admiration  how  adroitly  the  onslaughts  of  those  favoring  a  high 
school  course  more  in  harmony  with  the  occupational  life  of  the  com- 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  101 


munity  were  parried  by  the  suggestion  that  "perhaps  after  all  the  best 
preparation  for  college  may  turn  out  to  be  the  best  preparation  for 
life."  This  passed  current  for  sound  argument  bec«.i«&«  it  bore  the 
stamp  and  superscription  of  the  then  Chancellor  of  the  University.  It 
was  a  paralyzing  stroke  for  no  one  seemed  capable  of  making  the 
counter  thrust  by  handing  back  the  proposition  that  "after  all  per- 
haps the  best  preparation  for  life  may  turn  out  to  be  the  best  prepa- 
ration for  college."  And  indeed  who  of  us  feels  safe  in  saying  such  a 
preparation  may  not  only  be  the  best  preparation  for  college,  but  for 
a  better  college  than  the  one  which  now  admits  the  applicant  on  the 
traditional  classic  essentials. 

But  to  return  from  this  digression  suffice  it  to  say  that  because 
the  high  school  is  of  necessity  the  finishing  school  for  so  large  a 
part  of  its  students,  the  study  of  education  should  be  offered  as  a 
part  of  -their  equipment  for  life.  It  may  be  objected  however  that 
they  are  as  yet  too  immature  to  profit  by  such  instruction.  This  brings 
us  to  the  real  vital  point. 

In  support  of  the  idea  that  high  school  graduates  are  mature 
enough  for  a  brief  and  concrete  study  of  education  only  a  few  facts  will 
be  cited.  First,  the  community  at  large,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  permits — 
yes  encourages  nine  out  of  twenty-three  of  them  to  assume,  the  re- 
sponsible function  of  teaching.  Second,  it  is  a  matter  of  common 
knowledge  that  members  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades  are  en- 
couraged by  county  superintendents  to  attend  county  institutes  if 
they  are  contemplating  teaching  after  graduation.  Third,  the  aver- 
age age  is  not  far  from  nineteen  years  which  is  above  the  legal  limit  of 
infancy  for  girls  in  most  civilized  countries,  and  within  two  years  of 
such  limit  for  boys.  Fourth,  six  out  of  twenty-three  are  sent  by  their 
parents  to  college  often  many  miles  from  home.  Fifth;  they  have 
been  assumed  to  be  mature  enough  to  be  instructed  in  the  science  and 
art  of  language,  both  living  and  dead,  with  profit,  in  the  science  and 
art  of  mathematics  with  profit,  in  the  science  of  government  with 
profit,  in  the  science  of  life  with  profit.  Now  if  these  students  have 
pursued  the  foregoing  sciences  from  one  to  eight  semesters  each  with 
some  profit,  it  would  appear  presumptive  if  not  conclusive  as  to  their 
ability  to  get  some  profit  from  a  study  of  the  way  in  which  their  own 
minds  had  to  be  used  in  the  long  journey  through  the  grades  and  into 
the  high  school.  A  study  with  the  text  of  his  childhood  in  hand  re- 
calling how  his  own  mind,  behaved  as  well  as  noting'what  sort  of  stim- 
ulation the  teacher  is  giving  before  his  eyes  is  not  only  within  his 
grasp,  but  is  of  immense  value  whether  the  individual  ever  becomes  a 
teacher  or  not. 

Finally  while  contending  for  pedagogy  in  the  high  school  as  a 
valuable  study,  far  ba  it  from  me  to  assume  that  the  student  can  get 
as  much  value  from  u  there  as  if  he  took  it  two  years  later  in  a  normal 


102 


NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


school  or  four  years  later  in  college.  Wherever  it  is  taken  it  resolves 
itself  into  a  study  of  method,  and  a  study  of  method  *  is  no  more  nor 
less  than  a  study  of  how  best  to  do  a  thing  that  has  to  be  done  some 
how. 


What  to  Teach 


State  Department   of  Education. 

What  to  teach  our  teachers  in  the  training  schools  and  what  our 
teachers  should  teach  their  pupils  in  the  public  schools  is  the  paramount 
issue  in  American  education  today.  In  Nebraska  there  is  but  one 
subject,  under  the  existing  statute,  which  it  is  mandatory  to  teach, 
namely,  physiology  and  hygiene  with  especial  reference  to  the  effect 
of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  other  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 
"There  is  needed,  too,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  physiology,  both 
temperance  and  the  other  kind;  not  merely  for  better  health,  but  be- 
cause it  is  vital  to  wise  school  administration.  Moreover,  the  problem 
of  fatigue,  of  exercise,  of  physical  training,  the  relation  of  learning  to 
physical  growth — in  fact,  nearly  all  of  the  questions  raised  by  modern 
pedagogy — demand  a  good  knowledge  of  physiology."  After  making 
the  teaching  of  physiology  a  condition  precedent  to  sharing  in  the 
state  apportionment  of  public  school  funds,  the  law  gives  the  local 
school  officers  authority  to  say  what  shall  be  taught  in  the  respective 
school  districts  of  the  state,  except  in  rural  school  districts,  where 
the  course  of  study  is  established  with  the  consent  and  advice  of  the 
county  superintendent. 

There  is  now  a  great  conviction  taking  fast  hold  upon  the  lead- 
ing educators  and  the  people  everywhere  that  it  is  better  to  teach  much 
of  a  few  things  rather  than  a  little  of  many  things.  And  so  came  to 
pass  our  crusade  for  the  five  essentials — reading,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, geography,  and  history.  By  reading  we  mean  not  only  the  ability 
to  grasp  the  thought  of  the  printed  page  in  a  silent  study  of  the  book, 
newspaper  or  magazine,  but  the  art  of  good  oral  expression.  Read- 
ing must  comprise  a  knowledge  of  our  best  literature  and  include  a 
mastery  of  the  art  of  correct  spelling,  punctuation,  pronunciation,  and 
the  proper  use  of  the  dictionary.  Every  public  school  teacher  should  be 
a  good  oral  reader.  Arithmetic  should  be  intensive  rather  than  exten- 
sive. Eliminate  stocks  and  bonds,  exchange,  alligation, duodecimals, 
and  all  such  impractical  subjects.  Make  rapidity  and  accuracy  the 
watchword  in  the  fundamental  operations.  Let  thoroughness  and  ex- 
actness be  the  motto  in  the  principles  and  applications  of  fractions, 
denominate  numbers  and  percentage.  These  are  the  indispensable 
things  to  be  mastered  in  arithmetic.  This  subject  should  also  com- 
prise mental  arithmetic.  Quoting  Dr.  Edward  Brooks:  "The  value  of 
mental  arithmetic  is  two-fold:  first  as  a  mental  discipline;  second,  as 
a  means  of  cultivating  arithmetical  power.  Mental  arithmetic  gives 
culture  to  the  reasoning  faculties,  cultivates  the  power  of  attention, 


104  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


gives  culture  to  the  memory,  cultivates  exactness  of  language,  sharp- 
ens and  strengthens  the  mind  in  general,  prepares  a  pupil  for  extem- 
poraneous speaking,  and  gives  a  pupil  the  power  of  independent  thought 
in  arithmetic,  and  is  an  excellent  preparation  for  algebra."  Grammar 
should  include  English  composition  and  letter  writing.  Yet  how  few 
of  our  eighth  grade  pupils,  high  school  graduates,  and  even  teachers 
possess  the  ability  to  write  a  good  letter.  The  subject  of  letter  writing 
is  the  most  generally  practiced  and,  practically  considered,  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  kinds  of  composition.  It  is  indispensable  in  business. 
To  be  able  to  write  a  good  letter  is  greatly  to  one's  advantage  in  any 
occupation.  Many  excellent  situations  are  obtained  by  teachers,  clerks 
and  others  on  account  of  this  ability,  and  quite  as  many  are  lost  through 
the  want  of  it.  In  geography  nature  study,  agriculture  and  commerce 
must  be  given  consideration.  History  must  not  only  tell  the  story  of 
our  country — it  must  teach  the  principles  of  free  government  and 
the  duties  of  American  citizenship. 

As  already  stated  we  have  selected  reading,  arithmetic,  grammar, 
geography  and  history  as  the  five  essentials.  Let  us  consider  briefly 
the  merits  of  each  of  these  subjects  from  the  standpoint  of  both  the 
teacher,  and  the  pupil  as  stated  by  men  of  affairs. 

READING. 

Quoting  President  Felmley:  "Every  teacher  should  be  a  superior 
oral  reader.  Every  poem  was  written  to  be  read  aloud.  The  first  step 
in  teaching  a  poem  is  not  to  have  the  allusions  looked  up,  the  words  de- 
fined, or  the  sentences  parsed.  It  is  not  to  discuss  the  meter,  the 
rhymes  and  alliteration,  the  figures  of  speech,  useful  as  some  of  these 
are.  It  is  rather  to  read  the  poem  to  the  pupils  so  well  that  its  music 
shall  be  heard;  its  rhythm,  its  melody,  its  harmony  of  sound  and  sense, 
that  give  charm  to  every  great  work  of  literary  art.  The  teacher  must 
understand  and  feel  the  thought  and  spirit  of  the  poem;  but  unless  he 
has  perfected  his  voice  a&  an  instrument  of  expression,  he  can  do  little 
to  awaken  an  appreciation  of  its  beauty  and  power.  The  few  teachers 
who  can  read  well  often  seem  afraid  to  read  to  their  pupils.  The  child- 
ren enjoy  it  so  much  that  it  seems  like  wasting  time,  if  not  positively 
wicked.  We  still  hold  to  the  opinion  that  work  is  what  you  don't  like 
to  do.  Too  much  time  may  be  devoted  to  reading  aloud  mere  books 
of  information,  which  have  no  special  literary  merit.  After  the  mechan- 
ics of  reading  are  mastered  in  the  first  four  or  five  years,  all  reading 
aloud  should  be  of  literature — literature  in  the  best  sense.  There  has 
been  in  the  past  few  years  a  lamentable  decay  in  the  art  of  oral  expres- 
sion, especially  in  our  high  schools.  Tnere  is  no  possibility  of  relief 
until  good  reading  is  made  an  essential  qualification  of  the  teacher." 

Hear  ye  also  Dr.  Richard  Edwards,  one  of  the  greatest  educators 
America  ever  produced,  in  behalf  of  the  subject:  "Let  pupils  and 
teachers  study  and  thoroughly  master  the  lofty  thought  and  the  grand 
descriptions  of  Hawhorne.  Let  them  become  accustomed  to  the  beauti- 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  105 


ful  imagery  and  the  gentle  spirit  of  Longfellow.  Let  them  enjoy  the 
chaste  humor  and  the  gentle  satire  of  Holmes.  Let  them  seek  to  un- 
derstand the  profound  but  simple  philosophy  of  Emerson.  Let  them 
follow  Thoreau  into  his  retired  communion  with  Nature  and  be  educa- 
ted by  her  simple  teachings.  Let  their  minds  be  enlightened  and  their 
taste  improved  by  the  thorough  but  genial  scholarship  of  Lowell.  Let 
them  be  transformed  by  the  profoundly  earnest  but  gentle  influence 
of  Whittier.  In  the  study  of  each  of  these  authors  there  is  a  possibil- 
ity of  valuable  culture.  The  works  which  these  men  have  given  us  are 
a,  rich  and  goodly  heritage.  It  is  in  all  respects  wise  for  us  to  im- 
prove it  to  the  best  of  our  ability." 

ARITHMETIC. 

Let  Dr.  Edward  Brooks,  formerly  superintendent  of  Philadelphia 
public  schools  speak  for  arithmetic.  "There  is  reasoning  in  Arithmetic. 
All  reasoning  is  a  process  of  comparison;  it  consists  in  comparing  one 
idea  or  object  of  thought  with  another.  Comparison  requires  a  stand- 
ard, and  this  standard  is  the  old,  the  axiomatic,  the  known.  To 
these  standards  we  bring  the  new,  the  theoretic,  the  unknown,  and 
compare  them  that  we  may  understand  them.  The  law  of  correct  rea- 
soning, therefore,  is  to  compare  the  new  with  the  old,  and  the  theoretic 
with  the  axiomatic,  the  unknown  with  the  known. 

This  process,  simple  as  it  seems,  is  the  real  process  of  all  reason- 
ing. We  pass  from  idea  to  truth,  and  from  lower  truth  to  higher 
truth,  in  the  endless  chain  of  science,  by  the  simple  process  of  compar- 
ison. Thus  the  facts  and  phenomena  of  the  material  world  are  under- 
stood, the  laws  of  nature  interpreted,  and  the  principles  of  science 
evolved.  Thus  we  pass  from  the  old  to  the  new,  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  Thus  we  discover  the 
truths  and  principles  of  the  world  of  matter  and  mind,  and  construct 
the  various  sciences.  Comparison  is  the  science-builder;  it  is  the 
architect  which  erects  the  temples  of  truth,  vast,  symmetrical,  and 
beautiful. 

In  mathematics  this  process  is,  perhaps,  more  clearly  exhibited 
than  in  any  other  science.  In  geometry,  the  definitions  and  axioms 
are  the  standards  of  comparison;  beginning  in  these,  we  trace  our  way 
from  the  simplest  primary  truth  to  the  profoundest  theorem.  In  arith- 
metic we  have  the  same  basis,  and  proceed  by  the  same  laws  of  logical 
evolution.  Definitions,  as  a  description  of  fundamental  ideas,  and  ax- 
ioms, as  the  statement  of  intuitive  and  necessary  truths,  are  the  foun- 
dation upon  which  we  rear  the  superstructure  of  the  science  of 
numbers. 

These  views  though  admitted  in  respect  to  geometry,  have  not  al- 
ways been  fully  recognized  as  true  of  arithmetic.      The  subject,  as  pre- 
sented in  the  old  text-books,     was  simply  a     collection  of  rules     for 
numerical  operations.     The  pupil  learned  the  rules  and  followed  them, 
without  any  idea  of  the  reason  for  the  operation  dictated.      There  was 


106  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


no  thought,  no  deduction  from  principle;  the  pupil  plodded  on,  like  a 
beast  of  burden  or  an  unthinking  machine.  There  was,  in  fact,  as  the 
subject  was  presented,  no  science  of  arithmetic.  We  had  a  science  of 
geometry,  pure,  exact,  and  beautiful,  as  it  came  from  the  hand  of  the 
great  masters.  Beginning  with  primary  conceptions  and  intuitive 
truths,  the  pupil  could  rise  step  by  step  from  the  simplest  axiom  to  the 
loftiest  theorem;  but  when  he  turned  his  attention  to  numbers,  he 
found  no  beautiful  relations,  no  interesting  logical  processes,  nothing 
but  a  collection  of  rules  for  adding,  subtracting,  calculating  the  cost  of 
groceries,  reckoning  interest,  etc.  Indeed,  so  universal  was  this  dark- 
ness, that  the  metaphysicians  argued  that  there  coulcl  be  no  reasoning 
in  the  science  of  numbers,  that  it  is  a  science  of  intuition;  and  the  poor 
pupil,  not  possessing  the  requisite  intuitive  power,  was  obliged  to  plod 
along  in  doubt,  darkness,  and  disgust. 

Thus  things  continued  until  the  light  of  popular  education  began 
to  spread  over  the  land.  Men  of  thought  and  genius  began  to  teach 
the  elements  of  arithmetic  to  young  pupils;  and  the  necessity  of  pre- 
senting the  processes  so  that  children  could  see  the  reason  for  them, 
began  to  work  a  change  in  the  science  of  numbers.  Then  came  the 
method  of  arithmetical  analysis,  in  that  little  gem  of  a  book  by  Warren 
Colburn.  It  touched  the  subject  as  with  the  wand  of  an  enchantress, 
and  it  began  to  glow  with  interest  and  beauty.  What  before  was  dull 
routine,  now  became  animated  with  the  spirit  of  logic,  and  arithmetic 
was  enabled  to  take  its  place  beside  its  sister  branch,  geometry,  in 
dignity  as  a  science,  and  value  as  an  educational  agency." 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  importance  of  the  study  of  English  grammar  can  hardly  be 
over-stated.  Prof.  William  D.  Whitney  of  \ale  University,  and  editor- 
in-chief  of  the  Century  Dictionary,  says:  ''Give  me  a  man  who  can, 
with  full  intelligence,  take  to  pieces  an  English  sentence,  brief  but  not 
too  complicated,  even,  and  I  will  welcome  him  as  better  prepared  for 
further  study  in  other  languages  than  if  he  had  read  both  Caesar  and 
Virgil,  and  could  parse  them  in  the  routine  style  in  which  they  are  of- 
ten parsed." 

English  grammar  comprises  letter  writing  and  composition.  Yet 
how  few  of  our  high  school  graduates  and  even  teachers  possess  the 
ability  to  write  a  good  letter.  The  subject  of  letter  writing  is  the  most 
generally  practiced,  and,  practically  considered,  the  most  important  of 
all  kinds  of  composition.  It  is  indispensable  in  business.  To  be  able 
to  write  a  good  letter  is  greatly  to  one's  advantage  in  any  occupation. 
Many  excellent  situations  are  obtained  by  teachers,  clerks,  and  others, 
on  account  of  this  ability;  and  quite  as  many  are  lost  through  the  want 
of  it. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Dr.  George  E.  Conors  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  has  the  floor 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  107 


for  geography.  Listen  to  what  he  says:  "It  is  rather  difficult  for  me 
to  estimate  the  full  importance  of  the  various  school  subjects.  I  believe 
the  different  branches  should  not  be  caused  to  stand  out  very  promi- 
nently in  the  lower  grades.  Yet  we  can  readily  see  that  certain  lines  of 
study  and  teaching  seem  best  adapted  and  at  the  same  time  most  es- 
sential at  different  stages  of  the  pupil's  progress.  The  subjects  are  to 
serve  the  taught.  The  basis  of  selection  must  be  the  pupil  with 
his  obligations  to  self  and  to  society.  He  must  learn  to  see,  do  and  be 
right.  In  all  this  he  is  influenced  both  directly  and  indirectly  by  his 
environment.  The  mission  of  geography  is  to  open  the  eyes  and  mind 
of  pupils  to  the  physical  and  industrial  world  in  close  proximity  to  them. 
McMurray  says:  'Geography  is  the  connecting  bridge  between  two 
great  real  studies, — nature  and  men'. 

The  subject  is  many  sided.  It  treats  in  its  own  way  our  food  sup- 
ply, shelter,  commerce,  and  adaptations  to  geographic  conditions.  It 
affords  a  very  necessary  mental  contact  with  nature,  at  the  proper  time, 
without  which  higher  education  is  not  possible.  Summarizing,  we  may 
.say  that  the  subject  is  natural,  practical,  economic,  and  cultural.  Can 
we  say  more  of  any  other  branch? 

I  am  not  able  to  line  up  the  principal  subjects  in  the  one,  two, 
three  order,  but  it  appears  to  me  that  geography  and  its  nature  study 
adjunct  is  a  necessary  and  important  study,  and  should  not  be  omitted 
from  the  list.  The  Committe  of  Fifteen  reports  as  follows:  'After 
arithmetic,  which  treats  of  the  abstract  or  general  conditions  of  mater- 
ial existence,  comes  geography,  with  a  practical  study  of  man's  natural 
habitat  and  its  relations  to  him.' 

The  Committee  of  Fifteen  says  further:  "The  child  commences  with 
what  is  nearest  to  his  interests,  and  proceeds  gradually  toward  what  is 
to  be  studied  for  its  own  sake.  It  is  therefore  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  the  first  phase  of  geography  presented  to  the  child  should  be  the 
process  of  continent  formation.  He  must  begin  with  the  natural  differ- 
ences of  climate  and  lands  and  waters  and  obstacles  that  separate  peo- 
ples, and  study  the  methods  by  which  man  strives  to  equalize  or  over- 
come these  differences  by  industry  and  commerce,  to  unite  all  places 
and  all  people,  and  make  it  possible  for  each  to  share  in  the  productions 
of  all.  The  industrial  and  commercial  idea  is  therefore  the  first  cen- 
tral idea  in  the  study  of  geography  in  the  elementary  schools.  It  leads 
directly  to  the  natural  elements  of  difference  in  climate,  soil,  and  pro- 
ductions, and  also  to  those  in  race,  religion,  political  status,  and  occu- 
pations of  the  inhabitants,  with  a  view  to  explain  the  grounds  and 
reasons  for  this  counter-process  of  civilization  which  struggles  to  over- 
come the  differences.  Next  comes  the  deeper  inquiry  into  the  process 
of  continent  formation,  the  physical  struggle  between  the  process  of  up- 
heaving or  upbuilding  of  continents  and  that  of  their  obliteration  by 
air  and  water;  the  explanation  of  the  mountains,  valleys,  the  plains, 
the  islands,  volcanic  action,  the  winds,  the  rain  distribution.  But  the 


108  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


study  the  cities,  their  location,  the  purposes  they  serve  as  collecting, 
manufacturing,  and  distributing  centres,  leads  most  directly  to  the  im- 
mediate purpose  of  geography  in  the  elementary  school.  From  this 
beginning,  and  holding  to  it  as  a  permanent  interest,  the  inquiry  inta 
causes  and  conditions  proceeds  concentrically  to  the  sources  of  the  raw 
materials,  the  methods  of  their  production  and  the  climatic,  geologic, 
an!  other  reasons  that  explain  their  location  and  growth." 

The  Right  Hon.  James  Bryce,  M.  P.,  wrote  the  following  in  behalf 
of  geography  in  the  Journal  of  Geography,  May,  1902. 

"We  are  now  all  agreed  that  geography  is  the  foundation  of  his- 
tory, an;l  that  the  historian  must  know  geography.  It  is  perhaps 
not  equally  necessary1  that  the  geographer  should  know  history.  At 
the  same  time  a  geographer  may  gain  a  great  deal  by  knowing  some- 
thins  of  history,  and  some  branches  of  his  subject  will  remain  incom- 
plete unless  he  posseses  that  knowledge.  Without  pursuing  the 
subject  in  'detail  it  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  proposition  that 
geography  is  the  key  to  history  if  I  mention  some  branches  of  history 
upon  which  geography  pours  a  direct  and  illuminating  li^ht.  One 
of  these,  for  instance,  is  ethnography.  The  whole  study  of  the  races 
of  mankini  and  their  connections  with  one  another,  and  their  ming- 
ling.and  blending  with  one  another,  and  their  passage  from  one  part 
of  the  earth's  surface  to  another,  evidently  depends  upon  a  knowledge 
of  geography  and  in  particular  of  physical  geography,  because 
it  is  these  physical  conditions  that  have  influenced  the  movements 
anl  bleiidings.  So  licguistic  history,  which  is  almost' a  branch  of 
ethnography,  is  another  subject  on  which  the  geographer  can  throw 
li^ht.  Or  take  the  case  of  military  history,  itself  a  branch  of 
political  history,  and  consider  how  much  physical  geography  has 
to  tell  the  student  of  wars  and  campaigns  about  the  importance  of 
lines  of  communication,  the  significance  of  mountain  ranges  and 
rivers,  the  places  available  for  fortification  whether  by  seas  or  rivers, 
or  on  hills.  You  will  see  at  once  that  a  knowledge  of  the  physical 
geography  of  a  country  is  essential  to  a  man  who  studies  military 
history  in  a  scientific  spirit.  Then  if  you  come  to  that  large  branch 
of  history  for  which  we  have  no  satisfactory  English  name,  it  is 
what  the  Germans  call  Kulturgeschichte,  the  history  of  the  social 
and  economical  progress  of  man,  the  history  of  the  kind  of  culture 
which  expresses  itself  in  social  life  and  artistic  life  an  1  the  develop- 
ment of  letters  and  learning  and  science — that  branch  a 72 in  is  of 
course  intimately  connected  on  many  sides  with  the  physical  environ- 
ments of  the  countries  in  which  a  civilization  h«s  been  developed. 
You  may  find  in  such  a  book  for  instance  as  Mr.  Payne's  recently 
published  'History  of  theNew  World  called  America,'  how  the 
whole  history  of  the  aboriginal  American  peoples,  and  especially  of 
those  who  early  attained  to  a  certain  measure  of  civilization,  can  be 
treated  most  profitably  in  connection  with  the  physical  conditions 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS.  _JD9.. 


under  which  they  lived,  and  under  which  the  latter  outstripped .  their 
fellows. 

An  extremely  interesting  aspect  under  which  geography  ought 
always  to  be  studied  in  relation  to  history  is  the  change  in  relation' 
of  man  to  his  environment  between  earlier  and  later  times.  This  is 
a  special  point  which  I  will  do  no  more  than  indicate,  but  you  will  see 
how  interestingly  it  might  be  worked  out.  While  man  'is  still  in  his 
primative  stage  and  not  yet  civilized  he  is  in  entirely  different  rela- 
tion to  natural  conditions  from  that  .which  he  bears  when  he  has 
invented  arts  and  sciences,  and  when  he  has  become  master  of  the 
forces  of  nature.  In  this  primitive  state  defense  against  wild  crea- 
tures and  ease  of  procuring  food  were  his  great  necessities,  but  in 
his  more  advanced  stage  it  is  the  facility  wherewith  he  can  obtain 
a  supply  of  those  forces  of  nature  which  he  can  bend  and  use  tor 
his  own  purposes  that  becomes  the  most  active  agent  in  advancing 
his  further  progress. 

There  is  also  one  aspect  of  the  relations  of  geography  and  his- 
tory which  is  of  great  importance,  and  that  is  the  history  of  geo- 
graphical discovery.  We  do  not  always,  in  our  teaching  of  history, 
give  quite  enough  importance  to  making  the  pupil  realize  the 
quantity  of  geographical  knowledge  which  was  possessed  at  different 
periods  of  the  Earth's  history  by  the  various  peoplen  who  inhabitel 
it.  Many  a  young  man  may  go  through  the  university  course  having 
realized  very  imperfectly  what  was  the  amount  of  geographical 
knowledge  that  was  possessed  by  the  ancient  world  at  different 
epochs,  and  similarly  the  steps  by  which  geographical  discoveries 
since  the  days  of  the  Portuguese  in  the  middle  of  the  15th  century 
have  been  advanced.  It  adds  much  to  the  interest  of  study  and  it 
explains  many  of  the  phenomena  of  history  to  make  the  pupil  at 
every  stage  of  his  progress  have  a  picture  of  the  world  as  then 
known  before  his  mind,  and  to  realize  where  it  was  that  darkness 
lay  and  on  what  points  light  had  from  time  to  time  fallen  during  the 
long  progress  from  the  days  of  Homer  to  our  own,  in  the  discovery 
of  the  various  continents  and  oceans  of  the  world.  For  that  pur- 
pose we  want  a  greater  number  of  historical  maps  in  our  atlases  than 
we  generally  possess,  and  I  am  sure  on  the  walls  of  a  college  lecture- 
room  nothing  could  be  more  serviceable  than  to  have  these  con- 
stantly displayed  before  the  pupil.  It  may  be  that  in  the  best  his- 
torical schools  this  is  now  done.  It  was  not  so  twenty  or  thirty 
years  ago. 

Lastly,  the  third  aspect  in  which  geography  comes  into  education, 
or  rather  the  third  of  the  aspects  that  I  am  asking  you  to  consider, 
for  there  are  doubtless  other  aspects,  is  that  in  which  it  is  regardel 
as  the  basis  of  commerce.  Commerce  reduced  to  its  simplest  terms 
is  an  exchange  of  products,  and  both  the  maker  of  any  article  and  the 
exporter  of  that  article  ought  to  know  where  each  article  can  best  be 


110  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


produced,  whence  the  raw  material  used  in  manufacture  come,  which  are 
the  places  best  adapted  for  manufacture,  and  where  are  the  best  markets. 
To  use  the  words  of  Vergil,  the  merchant  ought  to  know  quid  quaeque 
ferat  regis  et  quid  quaeque  recuset,  what  each  country  bears  and  what 
each  country  refuses  to  bear.  He  ought  to  know  what  are  the  conditions 
uucer  which  the  product  can  be  obtained,  what  are  the  conditions  of 
labor  that  determine  the  getting  it  and  transporting  it,  what  are  the 
markets,  whether  near  or  distant,  in  which  it  may  best  be  disposed  of 
and  where  requirements  affect  its  production,  and  what  are  the  lines  of 
communication  and  transport  along  which  it  can  best  (most  swiftly  and 
profitably)  be  carried,  whether  by  sea  or  land." 

AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

No  person  should  take  upon  himself  the  grave  responsibilities  of 
teaching  without  a  comprehensive,  minute,  practical  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  his  country.  A  narrow  view  can  no  longer  be  taken  in  the 
study  and  in  the  teaching  of  American  history.  Hear  Senator  Bever- 
idge  on  this  point:  "The  dominant  notes  in  American  history  have  thus 
far  been  self-government  and  internal  improvements.  But  these  were 
not  ends;  they  were  means.  They  were  modes  of  preparation.  The 
dominant  notes  in  American  life  henceforth  will  be,  not  only  for  self- 
ment  and  internal  development,  but  also  administration  and  world  im- 
provement." 

The  value  of  history  cannot  be  better  stated  than  in  the  words  of 
Gladstone:  "The  several  kinds  of  knowledge  need  to  be  balanced  one 
with  another,  somewhat  as  the  several  limbs  of  the  body  need  a  propor- 
tional exercise  in  order  to  secure  a  healthy  and  equable  development. 
The  knowledge  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  knowledge  of  the  planet  on 
which  we  live,  and  the  qualities  of  all  its  material  elements  and  of  all 
its  living  orders — valuable,  nay,  invaluable  as  it  may  be  shown  to  be, 
is  nevertheless  knowledge  wholly  inferior  in  rank  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  one  living  order  that  beyond  measure  tran- 
scends all  the  rest,  and  that  has  for  perhaps  its  most  distinctive  char- 
acteristic this — that  it  possesses  a  history.  This  history  is  among  the 
most  potent  and  effective  of  all  the  instruments  of  human  education. 
It  introduces  us  to  forms  of  thought  and  action,  which  are  infinitely  di- 
versified; it  gives  us  far  larger  materials  of  judgment  upon  human  con- 
duct, and  upon  the  very  springs  of  action  than  any  present  experience 
can  confer.  The  historical  mind  is  the  judicial  mind  in  the  exactness 
of  its  balance;  it  is  the  philosophic  mind  in  the  comprehensiveness  and 
refinement  of  its  view." 

The  great  lesson  of  history,  according  to  Froude,  is  this:  "The 
world  is  built  somehow  on  moral  foundations;  in  the  long  run,  it  is 
well  with  the  good;  in  the  long  run  it  is  ill  with  the  wicked.  Opinions 
alter,  manners  change,  creeds  rise  and  fall,  but  the  moral  law  is  writ- 
ten on  tablets  of  eternity.  For  every  false  word  or  unrighteous  deed, 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS.  Ill 


for  cruelty  and  oppression,  for  lust  or  vanity,  the  price  to  be  paid 
at  last;  not  always  by  the  chief  offenders,  but  paid  by  some  one.  Jus- 
tice and  truth  alone  endure  and  live.  Injustice  and  falsehood  may  be 
long-lived,  but  doomsday  comes  at  last  to  them,  in  French  revolution 
and  other  terrible  ways."  Let  no  teacher  fail  to  impress  upon  the  ris- 
ing generation  the  great  lesson  of  history. 


The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic 

Professor  Simon  .Newcomb,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  first  question  to  arise  in  the  minds  of  this  honored  assemblage 
on  the  present  occasion  may  well  be  how  it  happens  that  one  not  sup- 
posed to  have  been  professionally  engaged  in  the  instruction  of  youth 
should  ask  a  hearing  from  a  body  of  teachers  of  such  wide  experience 
as  that  here  present.  The  answer  is  that  during  almost  my  entire  adult 
life  I  have  had  occasion  to  employ  and  train  young  men  hi  numerical 
computations  pertaining  to  astronomy.  When  candidates  presented 
themselves  for  employment  in  this  presumably  abstruse  work,  it  was 
naturally  supposed  that  great  stress  would  be  laid  on  the  mathematical 
course  they  had  taken  in  school  or  college.  After  a  few  years  of  ex- 
perience the  general  reply  which  I  had  to  make  to  all  questions  of  qual- 
ifications was  that  proficiency  in  arithmetic  came  first  in  importance, 
and  the  first  rule,  simple  addition,  was  the  most  important  of  all.  Sub- 
traction was  scarcely  below  it,  and  multiplication  and  division  were 
desirable.  Next  in  order  came  general  ideas  of  quantity,  which  one 
could  scarcely  be  expected  to  acquire  without  some  training  in  the 
higher  mathematics  and  yet  which  evaded  exact  definition.  This  stand- 
ard of  qualification  was  emphasized  because  the  general  rule  was  found 
to  be  that  the  candidate  had  learned  his  arithmetic  by  methods  inherited 
generation  after  generation  from  the  colonial  schoolmaster,  without  in- 
filtration from  those  professionally  engaged  in  applying  arithmetic  to 
practical  purposes.  In  the  case  of  more  advanced  mathematical  sub- 
jects the  main  object  in  view  had  been  mental  discipline;  and  the  idea 
of  implanting  mathematical  conceptions  that  the  student  should  be  able 
to  see  and  apply  in  daily  work  had  never  entered  into  the  plan.  It 
was  therefore  often  necessary  to  begin  by  showing  a  beginner  in  my 
work  how  to  add  and  subtract. 

Another  noticeable  circumstance  was  that  the  deficiency  in  arith- 
metic was  more  marked  in  American  youth  than  in  foreigners,  especially 
Germans.  I  found  that,  however  little  education  a  German  applicant 
might  have  had,  he  was  at  least  as  good  an  arithmetician  as  the  best 
American.  In  view  of  the  excellence  of  our  common-school  system,  the 
question  could  not  but  suggest  itself  whether  there  might  not  be  some 
trait  of  the  American  mind  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  arith- 
metical capacity.  But  experience  has  led  me  to  the  conclusion  that  it 
Is  more  in  our  methods  of  teaching  than  in  the  want  of  capacity  that  the 

*From  the  Fiftieth  Anniversary  Volume,  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, 1906. 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  113 


difference  is  to  be  sought.  When  ray  children  went  to  school  I  found 
that  their  little  brains  were  being  painfully  exercised  in  commercial 
ctrithmetic,  custom-house  business,  and  other  exercises  no  more  con- 
ducive to  mental  efficiency  than  an  hour  or  two  spent  in  trying  to  lift 
a  house  would  have  been  to  the  health  of  their  muscular  system. 

It  is  one  thing  to  see  a  defect,  and  quite  another  thing  to  devise 
a  remedy.  I  have  from  time  to  time  tried  to  gain  what  light  I  could  on 
the  points  in  which  the  common-school  education  in  Germany  differed 
from  our  own.  A  very  little  inquiry  in  this  direction,  added  to  what  I 
knew  from  experience,  showed  that  ,the  German  system  was  broader 
and  more  practical  in  its  aims  than  our  own;  but  I  saw  no  reason  to 
suppose  it  the  ideal  one  of  which  I  was  in  search.  I  therefore  tried  to 
reach  conclusions  of  my  own  as  to  methods  of  mathematical  teaching, 
in  at  least  the  elementary  branches,  especially  arithmetic.  One  point 
was  clear:  our  teaching  was  too  abstract  and  too  much  dissociated  from 
objects  of  sense.  In  1892  I  published  in  the  Educational  Review  a 
paper  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics,  in  which  I  emphasized  this  view, 
and  suggested  methods  by  which  elementary  arithmetical  ideas  could 
be  gained  and  enforced  through  the  senses.  It  was  discouraging  never 
to  learn  that  this  paper  seemed  to  excite  attention.  But  when  I  re- 
turned to  the  subject  during  the  past  twelve  months,  I  was  much  pleased 
to  find  that  the  very  ideas  which  I  had  then  set  forth,  not  only  as  to 
general  principles,  but  in  detail,  are  now  features  of  the  latest  arith- 
metics that  have 'been  written.  Whether  my  paper  was  or  was  not  a 
factor  in  this  change  I  cannot  say.  Perhaps  the  case  will  be  a  little 
more  encouraging  if  it  was  not.  The  main  point  is  that  if,  as  the  facts 
seem  to  indicate,  ideas  which  I  then  set  forth  are  now  found  worthy  of 
acceptance  by  practical  teachers,  the  same  may  be  true  of  the  results  of 
further  studies  in  the  same  direction,  to  which  I  now  invite  your  at- 
tention. 

In  any  branch  of  human  endeavor  the  first  requirement  is  a  clear 
conception  of  the  purpose  in  view.  Our  first  question  must  therefore 
be  that  of  the  object  aimed  at  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic. 

It  is  now  universally  admitted  that  the  main  purpose  of  education 
is  the  building  up  of  the  mind  and  training  of  the  faculties,  rather  than 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge  or  the  mastery  of  details  set  forth  in  text- 
books. "Discipline"  and  "culture"  are  terms  often  used  to  express  this 
purpose.  In  the  case  of  mathematics,  discipline  is  commonly  considered 
to  be  the  main  object.  But  it  seems  to  me  that  a  precise  definition 
of  what  we  mean  by  discipline  is  wanting.  In  its  most  acceptable  form, 
I  should  define  it  as  the  development  of  the  power  of  co-ordinating  the 
action  of  the  various  faculties  and  directing  it  toward  a  definite  end. 
Granting  this,  it  is,  above  the  kindergarten  stage,  rather  a  corollary 
than  an  object  to  be  kept  primarily  in  view.  I  shall  therefore  pass  it 
over  and  try  to  state  the  purpose  in  a  more  definite  form. 


114  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


Without  going  into  details,  a  very  little  thought  will,  I  think,  make 
it  clear  that  the  main  end  of  mathematical  teaching — we  might  say 
of  teaching  generally — is  to  store  the  mind  with  clear  conceptions  of 
things  and  their  relations.  In  the  case  of  elementary  arithmetic  the 
things  we  first  deal  with  are  numbers.  It  follows  that  a  clear  conception 
of  numbers  and  their  relations  is  the  end  toward  which  our  teaching 
should  be  directed.  I  think  every  teacher  who  has  carefully  studied 
the  mind  of  the  apparently  dull  pupil  will  agree  that  the  real  difficulty 
is  to  give  him  an  insight  into  the  nature  of  the  problem  he  is  to  solve. 
He  may  be  able  to  repeat  the  words;  but  you  find  that  these  words  do 
not  make  a  sufficiently  definite  impression  on  his  mind.  Clear  and  ac- 
curate conceptions  of  the  relations  of  nuirber  are  therefore  to  be 
generated. 

To  show  what  we  mean  by  clear  conceptions  of  number  we  must 
stray  into  the  field  of  psychology.  We  may  conceive  of  the  brain  of 
man  as  a  microcosm,  containing  within  its  narrow  limits  all  that  the 
individual  knows  of  any  and  every  subject.  There  are  two  universes, 
the  microcosm  within  us  and  the  macrocosm  without  us.  The  success 
of  the  individual,  not  only  in  all  the  applications  of  science,  but  in  every 
branch  of  endeavor,  depends  on  the  accuracy  and  completeness  with 
which  processes  at  play  in  the  subject  with  which  he  is  dealing  are 
represented  by  corresponding  processes  in  his  own  microcosm. 

Admitting  that  everything  known  of  external  nature  has  its  image 
in  the  mind  of  the  man  who  knows  it,  I  cannot  but  regard  it  as  a  defect 
in  psychological  nomenclature  that  there  is  no  one  general  term  used  to 
express  this  mental  image  of  an  external  object  and  nothing  else. 
To  take  a  familiar  example,  we  all  have  an  idea  of  the  house  in  which  we 
live.  We  can  think  of  the  building,  of  the  arrangement  of  its  rooms,  when 
it  is  out  of  sight,  as  if  we  had  a  picture  of  it  in  our  mind's  eye.  This 
picture  is  not  a  flat  plan,  but  rather  a  model  embodying  the  arrangement 
of  all  the  rooms  in  the  house.  What  is  true  of  the  house  is  true  of  all 
human  knowledge  and  of  its  applications.  The  engineer  can  in  his  mind 
erect  bridges  in  which  the  actions  of  stress  and  strain  shall  correspond 
to  those  in  the  actual  bridge;  in  the  mind  of  the  chemist,  compounds  react 
as  in  the' laboratory;  and  so  through  every  branch  of  knowledge. 

One  moment  may  here  be  devoted  to  avoiding  a  possible  stumbl- 
ing-block. The  question  may  be  asked  whether  it  is  quite  correct  to 
speak  of  the  mental  images  which  I  have  described  as  if  they  were  per- 
manent existences  in  the  mind,  whether  it  is  not  more  correct  to 
speak  of  them  as  something  which  the  mind  forms  for  itself  when 
necessary,  but  which  cease  to  exist  when  we  do  not  think  of  them.  I 
reply  that  my  argument  will  be  the  same  whether  we  take  one  of  these 
viewi-3  or  the  other.  If  I  speak  in  accordance  with  the  first  view,  it  is 
because  I  find  it  more  convenient  to  think  and  speak  of  such  an  idea 
as  that  of  the  house  in  which  we  live,  or  of  a  figure  in  geometry,  as  if 


ADDRESSES,. PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS.  115 


it  were  a  permanent  existence  in  the  mind,  brought  into  use  whenever 
we  need  it,  rather  than  as  something  to  be  constructed  de  novo  every  time 
we  have  occasion  to  recall  it.  But  if  one  prefers  this  latter  view,  he 
is  quite  free  to  adopt  it.  The  main  point  is  that,  when  we  think  clearly 
about  any  object,  we  have  an  image  of  it  in  our  mind's  eye. 

From  this  point  of  view  my  main  contention  is  that  the  first  and 
great  object  in'  training  the  growing  child  in  arithmetic  is  to  store  his 
mind  with  clear  and  accurate  conceptions  of  numbers,  magnitudes,  and 
their  mutual  relations  which  he  shall  be  able  to  apply  with  readiness 
in  any  actual  case  that  may  arise.  That  I  have  elaborated  this  point 
so  fully  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  should  never  be  allowed  to  drop  out  of 
sight  in  our  teaching.  The  latter  must  be  arranged  from  the  beginning 
with  this  one  end  in  view.  Granting  this,  the  next  question  in  order 
is  that  of  method.  Here  psychology  can  supply  us  with  a  guiding  rule. 
However  abstract  may  be  the  ideas  which  we  wish  to  plant,  they  must 
originate  in  sensible  objects.  But  they  must  not  stop  there  because,  after 
all,  generalization — conscious  and  unconscious — is  to  be  aimed  at  from 
the  beginning.  Let  me  illustrate  my  meaning  by  taking  the  number  10 
as  an  example.  I  think  pschologists,  will  agree  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  in  the  human  mind  as  a  conception  of  the  number  10  otherwise 
than  as  a  quality  characterizing  10  distinct  objects.  A  written  or  verbal 
symbol  may  be  used  for  the  number,  but  this  is  not  a  conception  of  it. 
The  point  is  that  the  word  or  symbol  being  pronounced  or  shown,  the 
pupil  should  at  once  conceive  of  10  objects  as  distinct  from  either  9  or 
11;  and  should  be  able  to  handle  that  conception  in  all  the  ways  in  which 
it  can  be  handled. 

Here  there  is  an  obvious  advantage  in  selecting  such  objects  as 
have  the  least  number  of  qualities  to  distract  the  attention  from  the 
fundamental  idea  of  number.  Hence  I  prefer  that  the  counting  should 
be  made  upon  small  dots,  circles,  or  other  objects  with  few  qualities, 
rather  than  upon  more  interesting  objects  which  are  met  with  in  every- 
day life.  In  this  suggestion  I  may  seem  to  run  counter  to  views  which 
are  entertained  by  very  high  authorities  in  education.  There  is,  I  admit, 
a  very  strong  argument  in  favor  of  the  view  that  the  principles  of  arith- 
metic are  best  mastered  when  the  child  is  taught  to  consider  them  as 
growing  out  of  the  problems  that  actually  confront  him  in  his'  daily 
walks.  I  fully  agree  that  the  practice  thus  suggested  is  one  that  should 
be  carried  out,  but  we  must  not  depend  wholly  upon  it.  Perhaps  I  am  a 
little  old-fashioned,  but  I  would  not  abandon  the  idea  of  applying  the  pu- 
pil's nose  to  the  grindstone.  I  have  no  objection  to  the  grindstone  being 
interesting,  and  certainly  do  not  wish  to  make  it  painful ;  but  I  want  some 
drill  in  thinking  of  numbers  and  their  relations  as  dissociated  from  the 
actual  objects  concerned.  Just  as  rapidly  as  this  power  is  attained  in 
each  and  every  branch,  I  am  willing  to  see  the  interesting  substituted 
for  the  instructive. 


116  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


We  now  pass  from  this  general  view  of  the  object,  and  method  of 
obtaining  it,  to  the  discussion  of  details.  As  my  views  on  some  points 
are  radical  to  the  point  of  being  revolutionary,  I  wish  to  borrow  a  sug- 
gestion from  universal  experience.  We  all  know  that  the  acquisition 
of  a  new  language  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  which  a  youth  has  to 
undertake  during  the  period  of  his  school  life.  Our  best  colleges  make 
a  knowledge  of  French  and  German  one  of  the  requisites  necessary  to 
graduation.  To  one  cr  both  of  these  languages  painful  attention  is  de- 
voted thruout  a  period  of  one  or  more  years.  In  former  times — to  a 
great  extent  even  today — several  years  of  study  are  devoted  to  Latin, 
instruction  in  which  is,  in  regular  course,  continued  in  the  college  or 
university.  And  yet  it  is  exceptional  to  find  a  college  graduate  who  can 
fluently  read  at  sight  a  Latin  author  whose  work  he  takes  up  for  the 
first  time;  who  can  conduct  an  easy  conversation  in  French,  or  can  write 
in  idiomatic  German  an  account  of  his  day's  doings. 

In  contrast  to  this  result  is  the  fact  that  every  child  not  a  mental 
degenerate,  during  the  first  few  years  of  life,  learns  to  use  a  language 
with  an  ease  and  fluency  which  a  course  of  school  instruction  never 
supplies.  What  is  more  curious  yet,  there  is.  no  striking  difference 
among  children  in  their  faculty  of  acquiring  their  own  tongue.  In 
school  we  have  dull  pupils  whom  it  seems  a  waste  of  energy  to  try  to 
educate,  and  bright  boys,  who  learn  more  in  a  month  than  dull  boys 
do  in  a  year,  and  learn  it  better.  But  no  one  ever  heard  of  a  child  es- 
pecially bright  or  dull  in  learning  to  speak.  Differences  there  undoubt- 
edly are,  but  they  do  not  compare  with  those  shown  under  our  system 
of  school  instruction. 

I  consider  this  well-known  fact  to  be  instructive  in  showing  that  we 
have  at  least  one  branch  of  education  which  we  find  to  be  toilsome  or 
difficult  when  the  traditional  method  is  followed,  and  yet  so  simple  and 
easy  by  other  methods  that  no  special  ability  is  required  in  the  teacher, 
and  no  mental  strain  suffered  by  the  learner.  The  question  I  submit  to 
your  consideration  is:  If  this  is  true  of  one  branch  of  education,  may  it 
not  be  true  of  other  branches,  and  especially  arithmetic?  I  shall  briefly 
mention  the  lessons  which  it  seems  to  me  we  may  gather  from  this  fact. 
The  idea  af  arranging  subjects  in  order,  and  completing  one  before 
passing  to  another,  is  plausible;  but  experience  shows  it  has  its  limit- 
ations. The  creat  principle  which  the  experience  alluded  to  especially 
enforces  is  the  educational  value  of  frequent  reiteration  of  very  short  and 
easy  lessons.  This  is  one  of  the  main  features  of  the  system  I  am  trying 
to  develop. 

Now,  as  my  object  is  a  purely  practical  one,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
some  idea,  however  brief,  of  the  method  by  which  the  purpose  in  view 
can  be  most  readily  attained.  The  system  I  advocate  may  be  called  vis- 
ible arithmetic.  Taking  up  subjects  much  in  the  order  of  the  traditional 
arithmetic,  the  first  would  be  numeration.  Visible  numeration  consists 


I 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  117 


in  counting  and  arranging  objects  in  tens  and  in  powers  of  tens.  At  the 
earliest  age  when  simple  arithmetic  can  be  commenced,  I  should  teach 
the  child  to  count  and  arrange  things  in  10's;  then  to  arrange  real  or 
imaginary  10'a  in  ICO's,  and  so  on.  In  accordance  with  the  general  prin- 
ciple which  I  have  laid  down,  I  would  begin  with  rows  of  10  dots  each, 
and  teach  the  counting  thru  10  sugh  rows,  making  100  in  all.  We  could 
then  imagine  the  results  of  laying  successive  100's  in  flat  layers  on  top  of 
each  other,  thus  getting  the  idea  of  multiples  of  100  up  to  1,000. 

It  would  be  psychologically  interesting  to  see  whether  in  this  way 
we  could  plant  in  the  mind  what  the  psychologists  call  a  number  form 
in  a  more  rational  shape  than  it  commonly  takes.  I  suppose  we  all  have 
vaguely  in  mind  from  infancy  a  certain  arrangement  in  series  of  small 
numbers  up,  say,  to  100.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether  a  more 
rational,  arrangement  would  be  gained  by  this  process;  but  this  is  not 
important  for  mathematical  purposes. 

Next  would  come  the  process  of  adding  and  subtracting  grains  of  corn, 
or  dots,  or  little  o's  made  on  the  slate.  Methods  of  doing  this  are  so  fa- 
miliar that  I  need  not  dwell  upon  them.  The  practice  of  multiplication  and 
division  in  this  way  does  not  seem  to  need  much  exposition.  We  can  re- 
peat a  row  of  any  number  of  dots  as  often  as  WD  please,  and  count  tho 
product.  We  can  divide  any  number  ^nto  groups  of  any  smaller  num- 
ber, and  find  the  quotient  and  remainder.  All  these  exercises  on  the 
four  rules  of  arithmetic  need  not  take  much  time.  My  impression  is 
that  you  will  find,  after  a  very  little  showing,  that  the  child  is  a'olo  to 
perform  the  fundamental  rules  upon  collections  of  grains  of  corn  or  dots, 
without  devoting  much  or.  long-continued  effort  to  the  prccsss. 

.The  next  step  would  be  to  extend  the  operations  to  continuous  quan- 
tity as  represented  by  lines  and  areas  on  paper  or  the  blackboard.  The 
addition  of  lines  consists  in  placing  them,  or  lines  equal  to  them,  end  to 
end,  thus  obtaining  a  line  equal  to  their  sum.  Subtraction  consists  in 
cutting  off  from  the  longer  line  a  length  equal  to  the  shorter  one.  Mul- 
tiplication by  a  factor  consists  in  adding  together  equal  lines  to  a  num- 
ber represented  by  the  factor.  Division  takes  a  two-fold  form.  We 
may  either  divide  a  line  into  a  given  number  of  equal  parts,  thus  obtain- 
ing a  certain  length  as  the  quotient;  or  we  may  find  how  many  times  one 
line  is  contained  in  another,  thus  obtaining  a  pure  number  or  ratio  as 
the  quotient. 

Please  understand  that  this  system  of  visible  arithmetic  is  not  a 
substitute  for  ordinary  arithmetic,  but  an  auxiliary  to  it.  Whether  it 
is  advisable  to  master  it  before  beginning  regular  work  with  figures, 
or  to  carry  on  the  two  simultaneously,  only  experience  can  tell. 

However  this  may  be,  in  teaching  written  arithmetic  I  would  have 
the  pupil  make  his  own  addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication  tables 
by  the  aid  of  countable  things.  Taking  groups  of  six  things — dots  or 
grains  of  corn — the  pupil  finds  the  successive  products  of  six  by  different 


NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH  •  SCHOOLS 


factors,  and  writes  them  down  in  order  for  himself.  He  thus  knows  ex- 
actly what  the  multiplication  table  means.  On  the  subject  of  using  it  I 
shall  presently  have  more  to  say.  The  treatment  of  fractions 
in  a  visible  way  by  dividing  lines  up  into  parts  is  simply  an  extension 
of  multiplication  and  division,  and  is  too  obvious  to  need  development. 
I  therefore  pass  on  to  a  further  extension  of  the  method. 

The  next  subject  in  order  would  be  ratio  and  proportion.  On  nay 
plan  the  pupil  reaches  the  first  conception  of  this  subject  thru  the  eye 
by  drawing  a  pair  of  lines  of  unequal  length,  and  then  other  pairs,  short- 
er or  longer,  in  the  same  ratio  to  each  other.  In  this  way  the  pupil 
will  see  the  equality  of  ratios,  independent  of  the  special  lengths  of  the 
lines.  He  can  then  be  gradually  exercised  in  forming  for  himself  an 
idea  of  what  a  ratio  means,  or  how  equality  of  ratios  is  to  be  determined 
by  multiplication  or  division.  I  would  not  have  measurement,  with  a 
rule  applied,  but  only  eye-estimates.  This,  I  may  remark,  is  the  gen- 
eral system  by  which  I  think  we  should  begin  in  all  cases.  The  reason 
for  it  is  that  in  making  eye-estimates  we  depend  more  completely  upon 
the  eye-conception  than  when  we  measure;  but  as  soon  as  the  conception 
is  gained,  we  may  proceed  to  measurement.  Having  got  the  idea  of  a  pro- 
portion of  lines,  we  next  pass  to  areas,  including  the  idea  of  the  dupli- 
cate proportion  and  the  geometric  mean.  All  this  can  be  done  without 
using  figures  or  numbers.  When  the  conception  is  well  implanted,  then 
proceed  to  numbers. 

In  connection  with  proportion  would  come  geometrical  repre- 
sentation of  all  the  quantities  which  enter  into  arithmetical  problems. 
Take  as  an  example  questions  in  day's  work  in  plowing  a  field.  We 
draw  a  short  vertical  line  to  represent  a  man  or  his  power.  On  this  line 
as  a  base  we  draw  a  horizontal  rectangle  to  represent  the  amount  of 
land  which  the  one  man  can  plow  in  a  day  of  ten  hours.  If  we  have 
several  men,  we  add  into  one  the  lines  representing  them,  and  combine 
all  the  rectangles  into  one.  Then  we  extend  these  rectangles  to  represent 
the  days.  To  introduce  the  idea  of  compound  proportion,  we  suppose  the 
results  of  a  day  of  eight  hours  by  making  a  rectangle  shorter  in  propor- 
tion. I  consider  any  problem  in  compound  proportion  solved  when,  and 
only  when,  the  pupil  is  able  to  represent  it  graphically  on  this  system. 
I  am  sure  this  process  would  be  more  interesting  than  the  use  of  figures. 

The  precise  purpose  of  this  course  in  visible  arithmetic  is  so  far 
from  familiar  that  further  enforcement  of  it  may  be  necessary  to  its 
complete  apprehension.  It  must  be  especially  understood  that  exer- 
cises in  formal  reasoning  do  not  enter  into  the  plan.  A  power  of  visual- 
ization and  of  giving  a  concrete  embodiment  to  the  abstract  ideas  is  the 
fundamental  point  aimed  at.  If  I  should  express  the  desire  to  have  a 
pupil  trained  from  the  beginning  in  the  mode  of  thought  of  the  profes- 
sional mathematician,  I  might  meet  the  reply  that  this  was  expecting  too 
much  of  the  childish  mind.  Allow  me,  therefore,  to  put  the  requirement 
into  a  slightly  different  form.  I  wish  the  pupil  trained  from  the  begin- 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  "    119 


ning  in  the  use  of  those  helps  to  thought  which  the  advanced  mathe- 
matician finds  necessary  to  his  conception  of  the  relations  of  quantities. 
If  a  mathemetician  has  no  clear  conception  of  an  abstract  quantity,  how 
can  he  expect  a  child  to  have  it?  The  mathematician  expresses  quantities 
by  geometrical  forms  and  the  movements  oC  imaginary  invisible  points. 
Let  us,  then,  train  the  child  to  represent  the  simple  quantities  with 
with  which  he  deals  by  simple  auxiliaries  of  the  same  kind,  adapted  to 
the  state  of  his  mind  and  to  his  special  problems.  What  I  wish  him  to  use 
is  not  merely  a  tool,  but  a  necessary  help  to  thought.  The  visible  arith- 
metic which  I  advocate  bears  the  same  relation  to  ordinary  arithmetic  that 
the  goometric  construction  of  complex  variables  does  to  the  algebra  of 
the  mathematician. 

Altho  I  have  spoken  of  the  graphic  constructions  as  merely  an  aux- 
iliary, I  would,  after  denominate  numbers  are  disposed  of,  be  satisfied 
with  the  graphic  representation  of  all  solutions  required.  After 
this  point  I  would  require  very  little  mathematical  solution  of  problems, 
being  satisfied  when  the  pupil  is  able  to  construct  a  graphic  representa- 
tion of  the  solution.  When  he  can  draw  proportional  lines,  explain  dis- 
count by  cutting  off  and  adding  fractions  of  a  line  to  the  line  itself,  and 
in  general  show  that  he  can  form  a  clear  conception  of  the  practical 
problems  of  arithmetic,  I  should  consider  that  he  knew  enough  about 
it,  so  far  as  the  mere  numbers  are  concerned.  Everything  beyond  this 
should  be  treated  by  algebraic  methods. 

Thus  far  I  have  treated  of  only  one  main  object  of  arithmetical 
teaching.  But  there  is  another  purpose  of  a  different  kind,  and  that  is? 
facility  in  the  use  of  numbers.  The  pupil  must  not  only  know  the  meaning 
of  multiplication  and  division,  and  understand  when  each  is  required, 
but  he  must  be  able  to  cipher  rapidly  and  correctly.  My  views  of  the 
best  method  of  attaining  this  end  are  perhaps  even  more  radical  than 
those  I  have  already  set  forth.  I  think  it  can  best  be  gained  by  short 
and  frequent  daily  practice  in  the  routine  operations  of  the.  four  funda- 
mental rules,  quite  apart  from  the  solution  of  problems.  I  would  have 
something  analogous  to  a  daily  five-minute  run  in  the  open  air.  The 
reiteration  of  simple  problems,  after  the  pupil  sees  clearly  how  to  con- 
ceive them,  is  a  waste  of  time.  But  this  is  not  so  with  exercises  de- 
signed to  secure  facility.  Leaving  details  to  the  teacher,  I  would  outline 
some  such  plan  as  the  following: 

Let  an  entire  class  devote  a  few  minutes  every  morning  either  to 
reading  or  repeating  aloud  in  chorus  the  addition,  subtraction,  or  multipli- 
cation tables,  until  it  is  ascertained  that  the  large  majority  of  the  class 
has  them  well  by  heart.  I  should  not  make  it  a  point  to  have  them  re- 
peat the  tables  from  memory  alone,  because  I  think  the  result  is  equally 
well  attained  by  simply  reading  aloud.  Another  exercise  would  be  that 
df  adding  columns  of  figures,  following  the  method  of  the  bank  clerk 
or  the  astronomical  computer.  It  would  facilitate  this  to  have  the  exer- 
cise printed  on  sheets  beforehand.  Twelve  lines  of  figures  would  be  a 


120  NORMAL.  TRAINING  IN  HIGH   SCHOOLS 


good  number.  The  earlier  exercises  may  begin  with  three  in  a  line;  when 
these  are  easily  done,  add  a  column  of  thousands,  then  the  tens  of  thous- 
ands, and  so  on.  Do  the  same  thing  with  exercises  in  multiplication  and 
division. 

These  may  seem  rather  dull  exercises,  but  we  can  easily  add  an  ele- 
ment of  interest  by  choosing  some  condiment  of  which  a  very  little  will 
suffice  to  flavor  an  otherwise  long  and  tedious  course.  The  mere  act 
of  repeating  in  chorus  will  give  interest  to  the  exercises.  In  addition 
an  element  of  interest  will  be  given  by  noting  from  day  to  day  the 
gradually  diminishing  time  in  which  each  pupil  can  complete  his  exercise 
and  prove  its  correctness. 

Thus  far  I  have  spoken  only  of  methods  of  teaching.  But  I  believe 
that,  if  the  system  which  I  advocate  is  intelligently  pursued,  it  will  be 
found  practicable  to  curtail  greatly  the  time  spent  in  simple  arith- 
metic and  thus  rearrange  the  curriculum  with  the  view  of 
disposing  of  the  subject  of  arithmetic,  and  passing  on  to  algebraic  and  geo- 
metric methods,  at  a  much  earlier  age  than  at  present.  In  this  connec- 
tion attention  may  be  invited  to  the  report  of  the  Committee-  of  Ten, 
made  in  1892,  in  which  important  changes  in  this  direction  were  pro- 
posed. It  must  be  admitted  that  in  making  such  changes  we  shall  be  run- 
ning counter  to  the  ideas  of  the  general  public.  When  it  is  proposed  to 
omit  commercial  and  so-called  advanced  arithmetic  from  the  school  course, 
the  reply  is  likely  to  be  that  we  are  considering  only  the  requirements 
of  pupils  preparing  for  a  college  course;  and  that  business  and  com- 
mercial arithmetic  is  a  prime  necessity  with  the  masses.  There  being 
in  our  country  no  body  of  men  more  influential  than  that  here  assembled 
in  wisely  directing  public  opinion  on  this  subject,  I  beg  leave  to  point 
out  the  fallacy  in  this  plausible  view.  The  experience  of  directors  in 
our  great  enterprises  shows  that  the  best  business  mathematician  is 
not  the  one  who  has  taken  a  course  in  commercial  arithmetic,  but  who 
has  the  best  understanding  of  numbers  and  quantity  in  general,  obtained 
by  the  more  advanced  course  of  a  mathematical  character.  A  problem  of 
practical  business  is  best  taken  up  by  one  who  understands  it.  On  the  purely 
practical  side,  that  understanding  can  be  better  gained  in  one  day  by 
actual  experience  than  by  any  amount  of  arithmetic  in  a  course  subject 
to  all  the  drawbacks  of  being  treated  as  an  abstraction. 

I  once  saw  an  interesting  example  of  this.  It  was  in  connection 
with  a  building  association  on  an  old-fashioned  plan,  which,  I  fear,  has 
gone  out  of  vogue.  It  was  a  mutual-benefit  association  in  which  accum- 
ulating results  of  monthly  payments  thru  a  term  of  years  were  to  be 
equitably  divided  month  by  month  among  the  members  desiring  advances. 
The  mathematical  principles  involved,  if  investigated  in  detail,  were  so 
complex  that  only  a  professed  mathematician  would  be  able  to  con- 
struct or  apprehend  their  theory.  Yet,  when  the  problem  was  faced  as 
an  actual  one,  the  whole  process  was  gone  thru  with  by  everyday  busi- 
ness men  and  laborers  without  the  slightest  difficulty.  Not  one  of  these 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  121 


could  have  explained  thhe  process  to  a  learner,  but  he  went  thru  each  step 
correctly  when  the  concrete  problem  was  before  him.  ^ 

We  should  also  try  to  dispel  the  current  notion  that  the  use  of  alge- 
braic symbols  belongs  to  a  more  advanced  stage  of  study  than  arithmetic. 
\Ve  have  advanced  a  little  in  the  right  direction  since  the  time  when 
the  signs  --]--  and  —  were  considered  as  belonging  only  to  algebra,  and 
therefore  were  not  used  in  arithmetic.  If  my  contentions  are  well  ground- 
ed, the  application  of  algebraic  methods  may  be  commenced  as  an  aux- 
iliary to  arithmetic  at  a  much  earlier  stage  in  the  course  than  at  present. 
In  connection  with  the  graphic  construction  of  problems  which  I  have 
suggested  may  come  their  solution  in  the  form  of  an  algebraic  expres- 
sion. If  this  seems  too  much  to  expect  from  the  young  mind,  I  think  that 
impressicu  will  disappear  on  closely  looking  into  tne  case.  Let  us  grapple 
with  the  subject  by  taking  it  up  as  it  really  is.  What  will  13  pounds  of  tea 
cost  at  55  cents  a  pound?  Before  the  arithmetical  solution  can  be  begun, 
the  pupil  must  understand  that  the  cost  is  equal  to  the  product  of  55  cents 
into  13.  It  follows  that,  if  he  sees  this,  he  can  write  on  his  slate  as  the 
answer  13x55.  If  a  given  sum  oi'  money  is  to  be  equally  divided  among 
11  people,  what  will  be  the  share  of  each?  The  answer  is  to  be  found 
by  dividing  by  11.  If  the  pupil  knows  this,  he  can  write  a  fraction,  with 
the  sum  to  be  divided  as  the  numerator  and  11  as  the  denominator,  more 
easily  than  he  can  perform  the  division.  It  follows  that  by  the  combina- 
tion of  the  two  problems  he  can  express  the  result  of  dividing  the  price 
of  the  tea  among  11  persons.  The  same  thing  holds  true  in  all  the  prob- 
lems of  arithmetic,  after  the  first  four  rules  are  disposed  of.  Not  only 
will  no  greater  difficulty  be  encountered  in  expressing  the  solution  in 
this  way  than  in  performing  it,  but,  since  the  idea  to  be  expressed  must 
be  in  the  mind  before  the  arithmetical  solution  is  commenced,  it  will  be 
a  help  to  express  the  result  in  what  we  call  the  algebraic  form. 

We  shall  also  find  that  the  use  of  algebraic  symbols  of  quantity  is 
much  simpler  than  is  commonly  supposed.  If  we  have  four  x's,  it  is 
simpler  to  call  their  sum  4x  than  to  call  it  x  multiplied  by  4.  This  sug- 
gests the  idea,  which  I  think  is  correct,  that  it  is  simpler  and  more  natural 
to  consider  the  figures  6  and  7  together  to  mean  6  multiplied  by  7  than 
to  have  it  mean,  as  we  actually  do,  sixty-seven,  which  latter  means  6 
multiplied  by  10  plus  7.  Granting  this,  the  expression  of  simple  arithme- 
tical problems  in  the  form  of  equations  will  be  easy,  .and  I  should  suppose 
more  interesting  and  more  improving  than  requiring  the  pupil  to  work 
at  the  solution  without  using  algebraic  processes.  It  goes  without  saying 
that  this  use  of  algebraic  methods  ii  elementary  problems  does  not  imply 
the  manipulation  of  algebraic  expressions,  Including  their  factoring  and 
division,  which  forms  ro  prominent  L,  feature  of  the  usual  elementary 
course  in  algebra. 

Having  suggested  all  these  innovations,  allow  me  to  sum  up  in 
briefest  compass  the  practical  conclusions  which  I  draw  from  a  survey 
of  the  field. 


122  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


I.  I  do  not  propose  that  we  shall  train  a  pupil  in  abstract  mathe- 
matical reasoning  until  he  reaches  the  stage  where  pure  geometry  can 
be  advantageously  taken  up.     But,  from  the  very  beginning,  he  should 
be  trained  in  the  faculty  of  mental  insight.    This  can  be  done  by  problems 
like  this,  to  be  answered  by  thought  without  making  a  drawing.     Of 
three  houses,  A,  B,  and  C,  B  is  100  meters  north  of  A,  and  C  is  100  meters 
west  of  B.    What  is  the  direction  of  C  from  A,  and  about  what  would  you 
suppose  its  distance  to  be? 

II.  I  regard  time  spent  in  the  schoolroom  poring  over  problems  and 
trying,  perhaps  vainly,  to  see  how  they  are  solved,  as  time  wasted.  Much 
waste  in  this  way  is  indeed  unavoilable;   but  our  policy  should  be  to 
reduce  it  to  a  minimum  by  explaining  the  problem  whenever  the  pupil 
does  not  readily  see  into  it  for  himself. 

III.  Of  course,  we  should  train  the  mind  in  seeing  how  to  attack  a 
problem.     The  objection  may  be  made  that  whenever  we  help  the  pupil 
in  this  respect,  we  diminish  his  power  of  helping  himself.     I  admit  this 
to  a  certain  extent;  but  my  solution  is  that  we  should  devise  such  prob- 
lems that  the  course  of  thought  they  require  can  be  seen  without  spending 
time  in  vain  efforts.    Please  let  me  cite  once  more  the  analogy  to  outdoor 
exercise.    We  should  all  agree  that,  if  we  coupled  the  exercise  of  taking 
an  outdoor  run  with  the  requirement  of  finding  out  at  every  few  steps 
what  path  was  to  be  followed,  and  put  an  end  to  the  exercise  if  this 
right  path  could  not  be  found,  it  would  materially  detract  from  the  good 
of  the  exercise.    Let  us,  then,  in  our  exercises  try  to  promote  facility  of 
calculation  by  exercising  the  pupil  in  purely  straight-ahead  work,  without 
requiring  him  to  stop  and  think  what  is  to  be  done  next. 

IV.  I.  have  found  in  my  own  experience  that  words  are  as  well  and 
more  easily  memorized  by  repeated  reading  than  by  the  same  amount 
of  repetition  from  memory.     If  this  principle  is  correct,  then  we  never 
lose  anything  by  having  the  multiplication  table  before  the  pupil  every 
time  he  repeats  it,  so  that  he  shall  read  instead  of  memorizing  it.  <(  I 
do  not  present  this  view  as  a  demonstrated  fact,  but  as  one  well  worthy 
of  being  tested. 

V.  The  plausible  system  of  learning  one  thing  thoroly  before  pro- 
ceeding to  another,  and  taking  things  up  in  their  logical  order,  should 
be  abandoned.     Let  us  train  the  pupil  as  rapidly  as  is  advantageous  in 
the  higher  forms  of  thought,  and  never  be  afraid  of  his  having  a  little 
smattering  of  advance  subjects  before  they  are  reached  in  the  regular 
course.     Let  us   remember  that  thoroness   of  understanding  is   a   slow 
growth,  in  which  unconscious  cerebration  plays  an  important  part,  and 
leave  it  to  be  slowly  acquired.    A  teacher  aiming  at  thoroness  might  have 
Cayley  or  Sylvester  working  half  his  life  in  problems  of  advanced  arith- 
metic without  reaching  the  standard  of  thoroness.    Let  us  rather  promote 
the  development  of  higher  methods  in  the  earlier  stages  by  introducing 
algebraic  operations  immediately  after  the  four  fundamental  rules. 

VI.  Separate  the  actual  exercises  for  acquiring  facility  in  arithme- 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  123 


tical  operations  from  the  solving  of  arithmetical  problems.  If  I  am 
right,  it  will  be  more  conducive  to  progress  to  be  satisfied  with  the  graphic 
representations  of  problems,  without  the  arithmetical  operations  of  solu- 
tion, than  by  actually  going  over  the  solution  itself. 

VII.  If  I  am  not  straying  too  wide  from  my  theme,  I  may  devote 
one  moment  to  the  extension  of  the  ideas  I  have  advocated  to  the  men- 
surational  side  of  geometry  and  physics.  As  a  part  of  the  arithmetical 
course  let  us  teach  geometrical  conceptions,  the  aim  being  a  correct 
apprehension  of  lines,  lengths,  angles,  areas,  and  volumes,  as  they  actually 
exist  in  the  objects  around  us,  and  are  to  be  conceived  in  thought  when 
these  objects  are  out  of  sight.  Valuable  exercises  in  this  respect  will 
be  endeavors  to  estimate  a  result  in  advance  of  calculating  it.  If  a  freight 
car  is  the  subject  of  measurement,  either  in  thought  or  by  a  picture,  let 
the  pupils  form  the  best  judgment  they  can  as  to  the  number  of  cubic 
meters  or  the  tons  of  water  the  car  will  hold,  before  making  the  computa- 
tion. Practice  in  estimating  length  and  angles  by  the  eye,  and,  in  fact, 
in  estimating  magnitudes  generally,  should  be  a  part  of  the  elementary 
course. 

I  conclude  with  some  thoughts  on  what  is,  after  all,  the  great  question 
involved.  What  are  we  to  expect  from  the  introduction  of  such  a  system 
as  I  have  outlined,  and  how  far  shall  it  be  carried?  On  ground  which  is, 
so  far  as  my  knowledge  extends,  as  new  as  this,  it  would  be  hazardous 
to  reach  a  decided  conclusion  in  advance  of  trial.  Here  again  the  difficulty 
arises  that  a  really  decisive  trial  must  be  guided  by  clear  apprehension 
of  the  purpose  in  view,  which  may  essentially  differ  from  that  with  which 
arithmetic  is  generally  taught.  Suitable  exercises  must  be  constructed; 
and  this  cannot  be  done  until  their  purpose  is  fully  seen.  If  I  should 
express  the  hope  that,  thru  the  proposed  system,  the  average  boy  of  ten 
might  be  as  well  qualified  to  begin  algebra  as  he  is  at  the  standard  age 
of,  I  believe,  thirteen  or  fourteen,  I  should  not  be  interpreted  as  meaning 
that  the  mathematical  faculty  would  be  as  well  developed  in  one  case 
as  in  the  other.  As  I  have  already  pointed  out.  development  of  the  mind 
is  a  slow  growth.  The  expectation  would  therefore  not  merely  be  an 
acceleration  of  the  mental  growth,  but  a  development  of  the  faculty  of  using 
powers  which  may  be  awakened  at  an  age  earlier  than  is  commonly  sup- 
posed. I  may  make  this  clear  by  referring  to  the  fact,  already  pointed 
out,  that  a  language  is  so  easily  and  rapidly  acquired  by  the  natural 
process,  when  the  acquisition  would  be  slow  and  difficult  by  the  process 
of  teaching.  If  we  could  imagine  a  child  ten  years  old  who  had  been 
taught  to  speak  only  by  rule  and  grammar,  learning  first  nouns  and  then 
verbs,  and  compare  him  with  one  seven  years  old  who  was  without 
theoretical  instruction,  but  had  learned  to  talk  in  the  usual  way,  we 
might  perhaps  find  that  the  older  boy  was  better  developed,  had  a  much 
better  theoretical  understanding  of  words  and  their  meaning  than  the 
younger  would  have.  But  the  younger  would  be  far  ahead  in  the  facility 
with  which  he  could  use  language,  and  apply  what  he  knew  in  promoting 


124  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


_ 


his  further  intellectual  advancement.  Something  like  this  I  should  expect 
from  instruction  and  practice  in  visible  and  graphic  arithmetic. 

Of  course,  it  should  always  be  understood  that  the  process  must 
begin  by  being  a  tentative  one,  applied  step  by  step.  I  therefore  earnestly 
hope  that  some  teacher  will  prepare,  and  some  publisher  be  willing  to 
bring  out,  a  series  of  exercises  of  the  kind  I  have  described,  to  be  tried 
on  a  small  scale  at  first,  and  expanded  as  far  as  found  successful  in 
Cesults.  I  certainly  cannot  conceive  that  the  time  spent  in  a  few  su<Jb 
trials  would  prove  to  be  thrown  away,  even  if  the  results  did  not  come 
up  to  expectation. 

This  is  my  first  and,  perhaps,  my  last  appearance  before  a  body  of 
eminent  educators.  While  I  fear  that  the  possibilities  I  see  before  me 
may  seem  to  be  the  ideas  of  an  enthusiast,  I  trust  that  careful  thought 
and  experience  will  lessen  the  impression.  I  therefore  make  bold  to  say 
that  it  seems  to  me  quite  within  the  power  of  education  to  make  as 
\  great  a  revolution  in  the  intellectual  powers  of  the  masses  of  our  popula- 
tion as  science  has  made  in  the  powers  of  the  few  thinkers  who  pursue 
it.  The  scientific  investigator  has  been  aptly  described  as  a  new  species 
of  the  human  race;  a  species  so  rare  that  it  might  well  be  considered 
an  abnormal  one.  This  species  made  its  first  appearance  only  four 
centuries  ago,  yet,  it  has  revolutionized  the  conditions  which  surround 
humanity.  I  think  it  is  possible  that  a  similar  revolution  may  be  brought 
about  in  the  intellectual  power  of  the  masses  to  judge  of  and  grapple 
with  the  great  social  questions  that  confront  them.  I  see  in  imagination 
a  great  nation  the  millions  of  whose  citizens  shall  each  have  clear  concep- 
tions of  the  nature  and  causes  of  the  natural  phenomena  presented  to  him 
at  every  turn ;  such  an  application  of  the  forces  which  move  both  himself 
and  his  fellow-citizens  that  no  unwise  law  can  be  enacted;  such  under- 
standing of  financial  problems  that  the  public  of  which  he  is  a  part 
shall  be  quite  secure  against  becoming  the  victim  of  rapacity;  and  such 
training  of  the  reasoning  faculty  that  the  masses  shall  never  be  moved 
to  action  except  by  sound  reasoning,  the  force  of  which  they  shall  be  able 
correctly  to  judge.  This  end  is  not  to  be  attained  without  many  trials, 
and  perhaps  many  failures  in  experiment.  But  every  trial,  whether  a 
failure  or  a  success,  must  be  intelligently  discussed.  In  all  our  discus- 
sions the  end  aimed  at  must  be  kept  constantly  in  view.  We  do  not  pro- 
pose to  form  a  nation,  every  citizen  of  which  shall  be  a  learned  man, 
or  even  a  well-read  man;  but  it  is  necessary  that  every  citizen  shall  be- 
come a  careful  and  correct  observer  of  all  that  he  sees  in  his  daily  life, 
and  so  good  a  reasoner,  that  however  unable  he  may  be  to  trace  out  the 
more  difficult  problems  of  life,  he  shall  at  least  be  able  to  analyze  his  own 
modes  of  reasoning,  and  thus  be  secure  against  the  acceptance  of  fal- 
lacious conclusions.  This  end  will  never  be  gained  so  long  as  we  regard 
correct  observation  and  correct  reasoning  as  subjects  for  the  .college  and 
university  alone,  to  be  taken  up  at  stated  times  in  a  course  of  education. 
I  therefore  hope  that  the  thoughts  I  have  ventured  to  submit  to  your 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  125 


courteous  consideration  will  not  be  applied  to  mathematical  development 
alone,  but  to  the  mental  training  of  the  masses  in  an  enlarged  sphere  of 
intellectual  activity. 

*SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  STUDY  PERIOD. 

F.  M.  McMurry,  Professor  of  Elementary  Education,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

Last  spring  I  took  charge  of  a  fifth-year  class  of  twenty  children  in 
history  and  geography,  with  the  object  of  investigating  and,  if  possible, 
improving  their  method  of  study.  After  spending  perhaps  sixty  minutes 
with  them,  I  assigned  one  day  a  paragraph  of  map  questions  which  they 
were  to  dispose  of  in  class,  without  help.  I  was  to  do  nothing  more  than 
to  call  upon  someone  now  and  then  to  "go  on,"  or  to  "do  what  ought 
to  be  done  next." 

A  girl  read  the  first  question:  "Here  is  a  relief  map  of  the  continent 
on  which  we  live.  What  great  highland  do  you  find  in  the  west?  In 
the  east?"  Then  she  stood  silent,  staring  at  the  book.  She  might  have 
inquired  the  meaning  of  "relief;"  or  have  turned  to  the  relief  map  op- 
posite—which was  small;  or  to  the  better  map  two  pages  further  over; 
or  to  the  wall  map  hanging,  rolled  up,  in  front  of  the  class.  But  altho 
she  was  not  embarrassed;  she  did  nothing.  She  was  waiting  to '  be 
directed  just  what  to  do,  and  she  waited  until  aid  arrived  from  me. 

In  response  to  the  next  questio*h,  "In  what  direction  does  each  (high- 
land) extend?"  the  two  great  highlands,  the  Rockies  and  the  Appalachians, 
were  described  as  parallel;  and  the  pupil  was  passing  to  the  next  ques- 
tion without  objections  from  any  source.  Again  I  had  to  interfere. 

"Which  is  the  broader  and  higher?"  was  the  third  question.  A  boy 
stepped  to  the  wall  map  and  pointed  out  the  Rockies.  But,  as  no  one 
asked  why  they'  were  supposed  to  be  broader  and  higher,  I  suggested 
that  question  myself.  Someone  gave  the  correct  reason  for  considering 
them  the  broader.  But,  by  that  time,  the  entire  class  had  forgotten  that 
there  was  a  second  part  to  the  question,  and  were  passing  on.  I  then 
reminded  them  of  the  omitted  part. 

The  fourth  question  called  for  the  location  of  the  lowest  land  between 
these  two  highlands.  Four  or  five  stepped  to  the  board  in  succession, 
showing  wide  disagreement.  Yet  no  one  asked  anyone  why,  or  proposed 
any  way  of  settling  the  dispute,  or  even  evinced  any  responsibility  for 
finding  one.  They  would  have  taken  the  next  question,  had  I  not  objected. 

"Trace  the  Mississippi  River,"  was  the  fifth  question.  Only  about 
one-half  of  it  was  pointed  out— i.  e.,  from  Cairo  southward.  But  no  one 
entered  complaint,  and  the  next  question  was  read  before  I  requested 
more  accurate  work. 


*From  the  Fiftieth  Anniversary  Volume,  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion, 1906. 


126  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


The  girl  who  read  the  next  direction — i.  e.,  "Name  some  of  its  largest 
tributaries" — stood  silent.  The  word  "tributaries"  was  probably  new; 
but  she  apparently  lacked  the  force  to  request  help.  As  nearly  as  I 
could  judge,  she  was  waiting  for  me  to  ask  her  if  she  didn't  need  to  ask 
someone  for  the  definition.  So  I  complied,  and  the  definition  was  given. 

Then  all  failed,  for  a  time,  to  answer  the  original  question,  appar- 
ently because  they  could  not  break  it  into  its  two  parts,  first  tracing  the 
principal  tributaries  on  the  map,  then  finding  the  names  attached  to  them. 

These  responses  are  representative  of  my  earlier  experience  with 
these  ten-to-twelve-year-old  children.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  were 
not  frightened,  and  plainly  understood  that  they  were  to  go  anywhere 
in  the  room,  and  do  or  say  anything  that  was  necessary,  frequently  some- 
one stood  ten  to  fifteen  feet  from  the  wall  map,  straining  his  eyes  to 
read  it,  until  invited  to  step  forward.  And  even  after  answering  the  single 
question  that  was  assigned  to  each  during  a  portion  of  the  time,  they  often 
remained  standing  at  their  seats,  or  holding  a  pointer  before  the  map  until 
directed  to  sit.  They  seemed  to  be  wanting  in  energy  to  move  about 
freely,  to  determine  when  answers  were  correct  and  complete,  and  even 
to  lay  aside  the  pointer  and  sit  down,  without  assistance. 

.  Yet  they  were  normal  children,  were  up  to  grade,  and  had  even 
•enjoyed  rare  school  advantages.  Nine  out  of  the  twenty  had  attended 
this  school — the  Practice  Department  of  Teachers  College — from  the 
beginning,  and  every  one  of  the  five  teachers  that  they  had  had,  had  been 
a  graduate  of  a  state  normal  school  or  of  a  college,  or  both,  and  had  been 
especially  trained  for  teaching.  How,  then,  can  their  failure  to  master 
such  a  simple  lession  as  map  questions  be  explained? 

The  explanation,  I  think,  is  found  in  the  peculiar  difficulties  of  study- 
ing alone;  for  I  was  almost  requiring  them  to  get  their  lessons  without 
the  aid  of  a  teacher.  Let  us  consider  those  difficulties. 

When  a  pupil  studies  a  lesson  with  a  teacher,  it  is  a  question  of  how 
much  two  persons  can  accomplish  together,  the  one  being  immature, 
and  only  under  favorable  circumstances  fully  willing  to  receive  and  be 
guided;  while  the  other  is  much  better  informed  in  general,  more  or  less 
versed  in  the  principles  of  presentation,  and  more  or  less  skilled  in  their 
application. 

In  the  mastery  of  text  together,  the  teacher  asks  questions,  pushes 
the  pupil  against  difficulties,  points  out  crucial  thoughts,  calls  a  halt 
here  and  there  for  review  and  drill,  furnishes  motive  by  praising  or  repri- 
manding or  pummeling,  as  the  case  requires,  and  not  seldom  grows  red 
in  the  face  from  exertion. 

Likewise,  in  the  case  of  developing  instruction,  the  teacher  chooses 
the  general  topic,  breaks  it  into  parts,  and  then  concentrates  her  ability 
on  her  questions,  endeavoring  to  have  them  short,  simple,  and  attractive 
enough  to  make  sure  bait.  And  if  she  is  very  skillful,  her  predigested 
morsels  of  knowledge  may  be  swallowed  and  assimilated  without  pain  or 
conscious  effort. 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  127 


In  both  cases  the  teacher  is  the  acknowledged  leader.  It  is  she  who 
takes  the  initiative  in  determining  how  the  lesson  shall  be  attacked;  who 
exercises  resourcefulness  in  meeting  unexpected  obstacles;  who  assumes 
responsibility  for  deciding  what  the  crucial  questions  are,  and  when  tho 
answers  are  right  and  complete,  and  who  supplies  the  energy  that  makes 
things  go.  If  she  is  accounted  a  good  teacher,  she  is  fully  as  active  as 
her  pupils,  and  probably  grows  tired  first;  she  is  the  one  who  does  the 
work. 

Now,  eliminate  the  teacher,  and  let  the  pupil  attempt  to  get  his 
lesson  alone.  It  is  no  longer  a  question  of  how  much  two  persons  can 
accomplish  together,  but  how  much  the  weaker  of  the  two  can  and  will 
do  alone. 

The  work  to  be  accomplished  is  the  same,  however,  as  before — i.  e., 
the  assimilation  of  the  topic  by  the  pupil.  The  means,  then,  must  be 
substantially  the  same — i.  e.,  a  careful  division  of  the  subject  into  parts, 
and  the  putting  and  answering  of  questions  touching  the  meaning,  relative 
values,  organization,  and  bearing  on  life.  Therefore,  what  the  two  accom- 
plished before — with  the  more  capable  one  working  the  harder  and  doing 
the  greater  part — must  now  be  performed  by  the  weaker  one  alone.  He 
must  now  duplicate  the  teacher's  task  by  teaching  himself.  How  different 
the  two  situations! 

Here  is  the  explanation  of  the  failure  of  the  class  mentioned,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  they  were  fairly  endowed  and  responsive  children, 
and  this  was  their  fifth  year  of  superior  instruction.  For  nearly  five 
years  they  had  been  establishing  the  habit  of  waiting  to  be  told  when  to 
step  to  the  board,  when  to  lay  aside  the  pointer,  what  questions  to  con- 
sider, when  an  answer  was  wrong,  when  something  had  been  overlooked 
or  forgotten,  and  when  they  were  thru  with  a  task.  They  were  strong 
as  followers,  as  would  quickly  have  been  proved  if  I  had  been  willing  to 
play  the  customary  part  of  leader.  But  they  were  untrained ,  for  such 
leadership  of  themselves  as  is  necessary  in  study,  because  they  had  not 
been  learning  to  take  the  initiative,  carry  responsibility,  exercise  re- 
sourcefulness, and  find  motive  for  effort,  by  having  someone  else  perform 
these  duties  for  them.  Indeed,  such  help  from  a  teacher  as  is  customary 
undermines  self-reliance  and  unfits  for  independent  study,  altho  it  may 
and  often  does  result  in  a  good  fund  of  knowledge. 

This  class,  I  think,  is  typical  of  others.  The  first  change,  therefore, 
for  the  improvement  of  study  periods  must  be  effected  within  the  recita- 
tion itself.  That  period  must  accustom  children  to  taking  the  initiative 
in  the  mastery  of  thought.  Outside  of  school— as  in  games  and  conversa- 
tion— they  do  this  constantly,  and  always  have  done  it;  it  is  in  the 
school,  the  special  institution  for  education,  where  it  is  wanting.  When 
instructing  a  fourth-year  class  in  literature  one  day,  I  suddenly  inquired: 
"Do  you  ever  stop  to  talk  over  what  you  read?"  "No,"  replied  several. 
"Yes,"  said  a  few,  "sometimes  we  do."  "All  right,"  said  I  to  the  latter. 
"Let  us  stop  here  and  stop  a  few  minutes.  Eddie,  what  have  you  to  say?" 


128  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


"O,  we  don't  talk;  the  teacher  does  the  talking,"  remarked  Eddie,  with  a 
most  nonchalant  air.  How  typical  of  the  school!  And  how  lamentable! 

To  secure  this  initiative  from  children,  radical  reform  in  the  conduct 
of  recitations  is  necessary  in  two  respects.  First,  there  must  be  an  ability 
on  the  part -of  teachers  to  keep  still  more  of  the  time.  The  teacher  is 
too  prominent  in  the  class.  And,  strange  to  say,  in  development  work — 
which  seems  to  be  regarded  as  our  highest  type  of  instruction — she  is 
most  prominent.  One  great  object  of  a  good  teacher  should  be  to  show 
children  how  to  get  along  without  her,  and  the  longer  she  keeps  a  class, 
the  less  talking  and  other  work  she  should  do,  because  under  her  guidance 
they  have  learned  to  do  it  themselves.  How  otherwise  can  they  be  im- 
proving in  power  to  study  alone?  Second,  initiative  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils  in  the  mastery  of  lessons  must  take  the  place  of  knowledge  of 
subject-matter  as  the  primary  object  of  many  recitations.  It  is  well 
enough  to  recite  to  a  teacher  a  portion  of  the  time,  in  order  to  prove 
one's  possession  of  facts.  But  reciting  does  not  usually  reveal  one's 
way  of  getting  the  facts;  it  merely  tests  results.  And  it  is  partly  because 
so  much  time  has  been  occupied  in  reciting  that  so  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  children's  method  of  study.  Many  recitations — possibly 
most  of  them  in  the  elementary  school — should  be  spent  by  the  children 
in  mastering  lessons  in  the  teacher's  presence,  with  the  aid  of  her  sug- 
gestions— not  primarily  for  increase  in  knowledge,  but  for  increase  in 
intelligence  and  independence  in  study.  This  change  of  aim  might  make 
it  advisable  to  call  the  periods  in  general  "study  periods,"  rather  than 
"recitation  periods" — there  is  so  much  that  is  reprehensible  in  the  latter 
name.  Children  would  probably  know  as  much  in  the  end — but  they 
would  also  have  far  better  methods  of  working. 

Now,  what  are  the  facts  about  method  of  study  whose  mastery  de- 
mands so  much  time?  Teachers  may  be  willing  to  practice  silence  in 
class,  and  to  accept  initiative  on  the  part  of  pupils  as  their  primary  aim; 
but  until  children  are  very  clear  in  regard  to  the  directions  in  which 
initiative  is  to  be  exercised,  they  are  likely  themselves  to  be  provokingly 
silent.  This  problem,  touching  the  principal  factors  in  proper  study,  is 
one  of  the  greatest  that  now  confront  the  teacher. 

Both  children  and  college  students  generally  recognize  two  main 
factors  in  study — i.  e.,  memorizing  and  thinking.  And  which  of  these 
should  come  first  is  the  first  important  question  to  be  met.  Custom  says, 
"memorizing."  ''Fix  the  facts  or  thoughts  in  memory,  then  reflection 
upon  them  can  follow  at  leisure,"  is  the  common  thought.  But  there  are 
always  more  duties  in  life  than  time  allows  us  to  perform,  so  that  re- 
flection is  habitually  postponed  until  it  is  omitted.  In  consequence,  to 
the  great  majority  of  persons,  studying  signifies  mainly  the  stultifying 
work  of  memorizing.  Suppose,  now,  this  order  were  inverted,  and  young 
people  were  taught  to  undertake  the  first  thing  whatever  thinking  was 
expected  of  them  in  each  lesson.  They  would  then  at  least  make  sure 
of  the  more  interesting  part.  But,  more  than  that,  thinking  thoughts 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  129 


thru,  in  the  various  ways  required  in  good  study,  is  the  very  best  method 
of  memorizing  them,  and  psychologists  recommend  this  method  even  in 
the  case  of  verbatim  memoriter  work.  Conscious  effort  to  memorize  would 
then  be  largely  or  wholly  unnecessary,  because  the  memorizing  would 
become  a  by-product  of  thinking  instead  of  a  substitute  for  it.  Here  is 
the  first  great  fact  to  be  taught  to  young  people  about  how  to  study.  And 
if  it  were  applied,  there  would  need  to  be  less  of  dull  drill  in  school; 
one  reason  for  so  much  of  it  now  is  that  there  is  so  little  thinking. 

What  kinds  of  thinking  are  to  be  expected  is  the  next  great"  question. 
The  chief  factors  in  reflection  must  be  carefully  taught.  Let  us  very 
briefly  suggest  a  few. 

1.  In  the  reproduction  of  stories  by  six-year-old  children,  teachers 
affect  to  make  the  response  easy  by  mentioning  definite  points  to  tell 
about.     Children  in  the  second  and  third  years  of  scjg^l  easily  detect 
the  substance  of  scoldings  received,  of  conversations,  kftjf  of  paragraphs 
in  their  readers,  and  they  determine  the  substance  of  paragraphs  for  short 
compositions.    In  development  work  thruout  the  primary  they  are  reason- 
ably successful  in  comprehending  the  question  under  consideration,  and 
in  holding  to  the  point  as  the  discussion  advances.     Here  there  are  the 
beginnings  of  the  ability  to  group  facts  into  points,  or  to  think  by  points. 
This  is  one  of  the  first  requisites  for  the  organization  of  knowledge,  but 
the  extent  to  which  it  is  lacking  in  adults  is  suggested  by  the  tendency  of 
teachers  to  offer  scattered  or  isolated  facts  in  the  studies,  and  to  wander 
from  the  point  in  their  conferences.    This  ability,  then,  needs  to  be  highly 
valued  and   developed.     Lessons   should   often  be  assigned,   or  at  least 
recited  by  .points,  rather  than  by  pages.    Marginal  headings  should  be  pre- 
pared by  children,  and  they  should  learn  to  put  their  fingers  on  the  spots 
in  the  text  where  the  treatment  of  a  certain  point  begins  and  ends,  thus 
determining  the  places  where  the  thought  turns,  and  where  pauses  might 
be  suitable,  for  reflection.    Also  they  should  verify  and  improve  the  para- 
graphing of  the  text;  should  assume  resopnsibility  for  detecting  beginning 
wanderings  of  thought  in  discussion  or  in  te::t;    should  receive  practice 
in  taking  notes,  by  points,  when  the  teacher  reads  or  talks  to  them;  and 
should  learn  so  to  group  their  ideas  that  they  could  easily  number  the 
points  that  they  themselves  make,  in  reciting  or  in  writing. 

2.  Children  somewhat  easily  detect  the  main  points  in  a  story;  they 
often  recognize  trivial  facts  as  such  in  development  work;  they  are  keen 
critics  of  the  value  of  words  in  comparison  w.ith  deeds  in  the  conduct  of 
their  teachers  and  parents;    and  tliey  are  often  distinguished  for  their 
good  sense  in  their  judgment  of  relative  values,  just  as  adults  are.     Here 
are  the  beginnings  of  a  second  mental  ability  of  vital  worth  in  study; 
and  it  is  all  the  more  important  that  it  be  developed,  dnce  the  facts  in 
the  three  R's  and  spelling  are  so  nearly  on  a  dead  level,  and  the  prevail- 
ing conception  of  thoroness  so  magnifies  trifles,  that  the  appreciation  of 
relative  worths  is  in  peculiar  danger  of  atrophy  in  the  primary  school. 

Whole  recitation  periods  might,  well  be  spent  primarily  in  the  culti- 


130  NORMAL   TRAINING  IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


vation  of  this  ability.  To  that  end  children  might  be  encouraged  to  mark 
their  texts,  indicating  the  relative  value  of  different  passages  by  their 
system  of  markings.  Reciting  usually  with  their  books  open,  in  history 
or  geography,  as  in  literature,  they  should  often  be  asked  to  begin  with 
the  largest  thought  in  the  entire  lesson,  no  matter  where  it  might  be 
found;  and,  if  disagreements  are  noted,  the  period  might  be  spent  in 
the  attempts  of  various  pupils  to  defend  their  estimates.  They  should 
practice  putting  large  questions,  as  well  as  answering  them,  and  should 
develop  skill  in  selecting  the  details  necessary  to  the  support  of  a  large 
thought  thereby  learning  to  slight  insignificant  facts.  If  they  are  not 
allowed  to  mark  up  their  books,  how  are  they  to  review  them  without 
loss  of  time?  And  if  they  do  not  learn  to  neglect  much  of  what  is  in  a 
text,  how  are  they  to  learn  that  wise  selection  of  facts  which  will  allow 
them  to  make  profitable  use  of  reference-books,  newspapers,  and  maga- 
zines? 

3.  Children  have  such  vivid  imaginations  that  they  are  capable  of 
becoming  frightened  by  their  own  pictures.  When  they  become  interested 
in  a  story,  it  is  difficult,  even  in  the  kindergarten,  to  check  their  expression 
of  suggested  ideas;  conversations  among  them  are  as  natural  as  among 
adults;  developing  instruction  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  their  ex- 
periences are  rich  enough  to  allow  contributions  of  thought,  and  fables, 
calling  for  interpretation,  are  especially  written  for  them.  Here,  then, 
are  the  beginnings  of  a  third  ability  of  great  importance  in  study — i.  e., 
the  power  to  supplement  an  author's  thought.  The  best  of  authors  fail 
to  put  most  of  their  ideas  into  print.  Or,  as  Ruskin  declares,  all  literature 
— like  the  story  of  the  Prodigal  Son — appears  practically  in  the  form  of 
parables,  requiring  much  supplementing  to  be  properly  pictured  and  in- 
terpreted. The  words  in  a  minister's  text  in  comparison  with  those  in  his 
sermon  are  perhaps  as  one  to  one  hundred.  The  statements  in  any  text 
should  bear  a  somewhat  similar  ratio  to  the  thoughts  that  they  suggest 
in  the  reader's  mind.  Accordingly,  much  time  should  be  occupied  by 
children  in  school  in  visualizing  in  greater  detail  the  scenes  in  geography, 
history  and  other  studies;  the  bearings  of  facts  upon  human  life  should 
often  be  traced  out  with  care;  and  comparisons  of  many  kinds  should  be 
instituted.  To  this  end  fact  questions,  testing  mainly  memory,  are  out 
of  place;  questions  involving  reflection  should  be  common,  if  we  desire 
young  people  to  become  reflective.  And  the  initiative,  it  must  be  re- 
membered, should  come  from  the  children.  A  very  common  remark  from 
the  teacher  in  the  treatment  of  text  might  well  be:  "Do  we  need  to  stop 
here  to  talk  over  any  matter?"  The  children  should  even  learn  to  call 
a  halt  themselves,  at  fitting  places,  and  to  offer  the  supplemental  thought 
without  even  a  suggestion  from  the  teacher.  Thus  they  might  be  taught 
how  to  read  books. 

Want  of  time  forbids  my  doing  more  than  merely  indicating  a  few 
other  prominent  factors  in  proper  study,  by  means  of  questions. 

Is  it  one's  duty,  in  reading  an  author,  to  try  to  agree  with  him;   or 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  131 


may  one  disagree,  and  thus  set  himself  up  as  a  judge?  Even  six-year- 
old  children  are  allowed  to  praise  fairy-tales  that  they  like;  have  they 
the  right  of  condemnation  also?  I  find  many  college  students  uncertain 
about  this  whole  question. 

Should  a  scholar  aim  at  firmly  fixed  opinions?  Or  is  it  his  duty  to 
remain  somewhat  uncertain,  and  therefore  flexible,  in  his  views? 

Again,  how  is  a  student  to  know  when  he  properly  knows  a  thing? 
Or  is  he  expected  to  feel  very  uncertain  until  the  examination  returns 
are  seen? 

In  mastering  a  lesson  or  reading  a  book,  should  one  study  primarily 
for  the  sake  of  understanding  what  is  presented?  Or  primarily  to  meet 
the  teacher's  probable  requirements?  Or  primarily  for  personal  profit? 

These  are  all  questions  of  vital  importance  in  study  for  all  ages  of 
students,  and  until  they  have  been  properly  answered,  and  young  people 
have  been  properly  instructed  in  regard  to  them,  home  study  will  con- 
tinue to  be  a  bug-bear,  arid  complaints  of  teachers  about  pupils  not  know- 
ing how  to  study  will  continue  to  be  common.  We  have  been  on  the  right 
track  in  the  past,  when  we  have  emphasized  the  need  of  careful  direc- 
tions in  the  assignment  of  lessons,  so  that  children  would  know  how  to 
go  to  work.  But  we  were  ignorant  of  the  magnitude  of  the  difficulty  in- 
volved. How  to  study  is  very  different  from  how  to  teach,  and  even  a 
broader  question,  I  think.  And  we  might  as  well  expect  to  train  persons 
to  teach  merely  by  giving  them  occasional  suggestions  about  teaching,  as 
to  expect  to  train  them  to  study  by  giving  occasional  suggestions  about 
study.  Therefore,  my  main  proposition  for  improvement  in  study  periods  is 
that  we  begin  to  take  the  problem  seriously,  and  go  to  work  upon  it. 
It  involves  more  knowledge  about  how  adults  should  study  than  is  now 
easily  attainable;  it  raises  the  question  of  the  extent  to  which  children 
can  be  expected  to  study;  it  favors  radical  reform  in  the  conception  of 
the  class  period — i.  e.,  as  a  meeting  time  for  the  exchange  and  correction 
of  ideas  rather  than  as  a  time  for  reciting  to  a  teacher;  and  it  requires 
cultivation  of  initiative  on  the  part  of  children  to  an  extent  that  is  now 
almost  unknown. 

*BUSINESS   MEN'S  CRITICISMS   OF  THE   PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 
J.  W.  Crabtree,  President  Peru  State  Normal. 

The  city  superintendent  is  confronted  by  two  sets  of  conditions, 
one  representing  the  direct  management  of  the  school,  and  the  other  rep- 
resenting the  relation  of  the  school  to  the  community.  His  time  and 
attention  has  been  given  largely  to  the  first  set  of  conditions,  grad- 
ing and  classifying  pupils,  making  courses  of  study,  arranging  daily 
programs,  regulating  the  conduct  of  pupils,  etc.  He  has  not  fully  appre- 
ciated that  from  the  second  set  of  conditions  arises  a  series  of  problems 

"•Prepared  when  Inspector  of  High  Schools  for  the  University  of  Nebraska, 
for  the  State  Association  of  Superintendents  and  Principals  for  the 
October  Meeting,  1903. 


132  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


which  must  be  solved  in  order  to  put  the  school  in  harmony  with  the 
community. 

Things  directly  connected  with  organization  and  management  have 
had  ample  attention,  but  that  phase  of  supervision  which  adapts  the  work 
of  the  school  to  the  demands  of  the  community  has  been  less  fortunate. 
The  one  is  'learned  in  pedagogy,  the  other  in  society  and  business.  The 
ability  to  organize  and  manage  is  essential  to  good,  thorough  school  work, 
but  the  ability  to  adapt  the  school  to  the  community  is  necessary  to  give 
life  to  the  work,  and  to  secure  the  most  practical  results. 

The  leading  men  in  the  community  are  inclined  to  look  upon  the 
average  superintendent  as  one  who  has  to  do  with  women,  children  and 
books,  not  as  one  in  charge  of  a  high  class  of  community  interests.  They 
often  ride  over  him  roughshod  when  he  attempts  to  express  views  on 
questions  outside  of  school  routine.  This  is  because  the  superintendent 
rarely  gets  beyond  the  school  routine  form  of  supervision.  He  enters 
the  society  of  children  and  of  good  books  a  great  deal,  but  knows  little 
about  affairs  and  the  society  of  men. 

Pick  out  the  eminently  successful  superintendents  of  the  state.  Why 
do  they  stand  out  as  the  best?  Not  because  they  possess  the  higher  de- 
grees, though  scholarship  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  but  because 
they  know  their  schools  and  the  relation  of  the  schools  to  everything  else. 
They  mingle  with  men.  They  are  men  in  whom  the  business  sense  has 
been  developed,  men  who  study  the  demands  of  the  material  world  as 
well  as  the  demands  of  the  intellectual  world.  They  know  what  may  be 
termed  general  interests  as  distinguished  from  local  or  community  inter- 
ests and  the  amount  of  attention  that  should  be  given  to  each  in  the 
curriculum.  _They  realize  fully  that  every  community  has  its  own  peculiar 
conditions  to  meet  and  they  make  the  solution  of  these  local  problems 
an  important  part  of  their  work. 

The  successful  superintendent  is  an  investigator,  not  only  of  prob- 
lems that  require  the  study  of  books,  but  problems  that  require  a  study 
of  people.  He  does  not  and  possibly  should  not  send  out  formal  lists 
of  questions  to  be  answered,  hut  learns  in  his  own  way  what  business 
men,  professional  men  and  laboring  men  expect  of  the  schools,  and  he 
knows  what  value  to  attach  to  the  views  and  criticisms  of  each  class  and 
of  each  individual. 

The  judgment  of  leading  business  men  on  many  phases  of  school 
work  is  exceedingly  good.  I  must  admit  that  the  investigation  which  I 
have  conducted  has  modified  my  views  on  some  important  questions. 
There  is  no  class  of  men  whose  judgment  regarding  the  work  of  the 
school  is  worth  more  than  that  of  leading  business  men  except  the  judg- 
ment of  the  most  enterprising  and  successful  superintendents. 

The  superintendent,  above  all  other  men,  is  in  a  position  to  know 
how  the  school  can  best  serve  all  right  demands  made  upon  it.  He  is 
the  only  one  qualified  to  make  a  final  decision  on  those  important  school 
questions  in  which  all  are  interested.  It  requires  the  highest  type  of 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  133 


mind  to  do  this.  The  work  in  supervising  a  school  should  require  as 
much  executive  and  business  ability  as  it  does  to  manage  and  operate 
any  other  great  enterprise  in  that  community.  Just  in  proportion  as  the 
superintendent  proves  himself  equal  to  the  task  of  fitting  the  school  to  all 
other  community  interests  will  he  take  his  station  with  men  placed  in 
charge  of  large  and  important  business  interests. 

N  The  purpose  of  showing  the  results  of  the  investigation  is  not  so 
much  to  discover  the  defects  in  our  schools  as  to  interest  superintendents 
in  studying  some  of  the  higher  phases  of  school  supervision. 

In  order  to  be  of  greater  service  to  the  schools  of  the  state,  during 
October  and  November  of  last  year  an  investigation  was  made  as  to 
the  efficiency  of  the  public  schools  from  the  standpoint  of  the  parent  and 
citizen.  Questions  of  a  general  nature  were  sent  to  ten  or  fifteen  promi- 
nent citizens  in  every  county  and  answers  received  from  three-fourths 
that  number.  The  following  was  the  list  of  questions  sent  out: 

To  what  extent,  in  your  judgment,  do  the  public  schools  as  now 
organized  meet  the  public  demand  for  education?  To  what  extent  should 
our  schools,  including  the  high  school,  prepare  the  boys  and  girls  for 
earning  a  living?  Are  the  schools  meeting  this  demand  in  a  satisfactory 
manner?  What  is  the  high  school  not  doing  that  it  should  do,  and  what 
is  it  doing  that  it  should  not? 

As  the  questions  were  general  in  nature  the  answers  expressed  gen- 
eral opinions  and  impressions.  The  data  was  not  in  form  to  tabulate  re- 
sults, though  exceedingly  valuable  for  the  purpose  for  which  the  investiga- 
tion was  made.  Some  of  these  leading  men  passed  severe  criticisms  on 
the  organization  and  management  of  our  schools  as  well  as  on  the  present 
methods  of  teaching.  The  questions  were  successful  in  drawing  out 
whatever  adverse  criticisms  were  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  those  answer- 
ing. Most  of  these  criticisms  had  to  do  with  methods  and  the  teachers' 
qualifications.  Very  few  men  attempted  to  point  out  any  radical  defects. 
Possibly  the  most  general  'criticism  was  that  there  is  a  lack  of  thorough- 
ness in  teaching  the  essential  common  branches.  On  the  whole,  the  in- 
vestigation showed  due  interest  and  just  pride  in  our  schools  as  at 
present  organized.  The  adverse  criticisms  were  less  severe  than  was 
expected.  The  answers  were  from  merchants,  bankers,  lawyers,  physi- 
cians, mmbers  of  the  legislature,  farmers  and  laboring  men. 

In  order  to  get  data  on  the  subject  assigned  for  this  discussion  in 
form  to  tabulate  results,  a  new  list  of  questions  was  sent,  in  the  early 
part  of  this  month,  to  300  business  men  in  various  parts  of  the  state.  The 
aim  was  to  get  the  judgment  of  those  who  have  young  men  in  their  em- 
ploy, as  to  whether  tne  Fchools  have  a  practical  value  in  the  preparation 
of  young  people  for  earning  their  living  in  the  business  world.  The  fol- 
lowing indicates  the  result  of  the  investigation: 

Question  1.  In  the  case  of  a  boy  desiring  to  enter  your  employ  would 
you  consider  his  school  record  of  any  value? 

The  answers  to  this  question  were  of  a  very  positive  nature,  such 


134  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


as  "Yes,"  and  "Most  certainly."  A  few  qualified  their  postive  answers 
with  this  and  similar  statements:  "Provided  the  school  is  properly  man- 
aged." Of  the  210  answers  the  tabulation  shows:  Yes  207,  no  3. 

Question  2.  Would  you  give  high  school  graduates  the  preference 
over  boys  who  have  not  taken  the  high  school  course? 

Some  of  the  typical  answers  were:  "Everything  being  equal  I  most 
certainly  would."  "That  depends  on  the  kind  of  work  done  in  the  high 
school.  Some  high  schools  cause  young  people  to  despise  honest  toil." 
"High  school  graduates  do  not  enter  my  employ  except  those  of  least 
intellectual  and  executive  ability  owing  to  the  kind  of  labor.  I  would 
not  give  them  perference  for  work  on  the  section  gang,  but  I  would  for 
more  responsible  positions."  "I  seldom  make  inquiry  as  to  scholarship, 
but  it  would  be  better  if  I  should."  The  tabulation  shows:  Yes  197,  no 
7,  don't  know  6.  Three  of  the  seven  who  answered  "No"  employ  cheap 
labor. 

Question  3.  Is  a  college  education  desirable  for  a  business  man? 
Typical  answers:  "Always  desirable."  "Desirable  but  not  essential." 
"That  depends  on  the  boy  and  the  college."  "Not  essential  in  making 
money,  but  important  in  making  life  mean  more."  "Worth  as  much  to 
a  business  man  as  to  a  professional  man."  "It  is  valuable  if  obtained 
in  early  life."  "It  is  likely  to  unfit  a  man  for  business."  The  tabulation: 
Yes  150,  no  20,  don't  know  32,  no  answer  8. 

Question  4.  Is  it  advisable  to  have  a  business  or  commercial  course 
in  the  high  school?  Answers:  "Indeed  it  is."  "The  only  way  to  prepare 
for  business."  "Yes,  if  a  practical  course."  "No,  because  high  school 
teachers  give  wrong  notions  hard  to  break  up."  "Train  the  mind  of  a 
boy  and  I  will  adapt  him  to  my  business  without  a  business  course."  The 
tabulation:  Yes  115,  no  33,  don't  know  41,  no  answer  21.  A  number  of 
those  answering  yes  explained  that  they  would  not  favor  a  business  course 
in  the  small  high  school. 

Question  5.  What  subjects  should  be  emphasized  in  this  course? 
The  answers  are  not  in  form  to  tabulate  well.  Some  answered  in  a  general 
way,  such  as  "business  and  commercial  subjects,"  "common  branches." 
The  following  shows  how  often  each  branch  was  mentioned:  Arithmetic 
70,  grammar  and  composition  49,  spelling  83,  writing  80,  bookkeeping  83, 
typewriting  17,  shorthand  18,  geography  5,  civics  6. 

Question  6.  Which  is  preferable,  a  four  year  commercial  course  or 
a  three  year  general  course  -with  the  fourth  year  devoted  to  commercial 
subjects?  Answers:  "A  complete  four  year  course  with  no  Latin  or  other 
language  except  ours."  "A  three  year  general  course  gives  a  good  educa- 
tion and  one  year  is  enough  to  give  to  strictly  business  subjects."  "Better 
still  would  be  a  general  course  with,  say,  one  business  branch  each  year." 
''The  latter  is  preferable,  but  why  not  have  what  would  be  equal  to  a 
year's  work  in  the  course  elective  so  that  a  boy  who  expects  to  leave 
before  finishing  the  school  can  get  the  advantage  of  some  preparation 
for  business?"  The  tabulation:  Four  years  23,  three  years  plus  one  101, 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  135 


•either  9,  neither  5,  don't  know  27,  no  answer  45. 

Question  7.  Would  you  be  in  favor  of  Latin  as  one  of  the  branches 
of  the  general  course?  Answers:  "By  all  means  for  its  disciplinary  value." 
"Yes,  for  its  value  in  improving  the  use  of  English."  "I  would,  provided 
it  is  elective,  as  there  are  some  who  cannot  profitably  pursue  the  study 
of  Latin."  "I  consider  it  next  to  mathematics."  "I  see  no  value  in  Latin." 
"It  should  be  cut  out  of  every  school."  "I  would  teach  no  dead  language." 
The  general  sentiment  seems  favorable  to  the  study  of  Latin.  The  number 
given  in  the  affirmative  vote  includes  those  who  would  excuse  some  pupils 
from  taking  Latin.  The  vote  stands:  Yes  143,  no  31,  don't  know  28,  no 
answer  8. 

Question  8.  Would  you  include  German  in  the  list  of  subjects  for 
a  four  year  commercial  course?  Answers:  "Yes,  as  a  culture  study,  not 
as  necessary  for  business."  "I  would  require  it  of  every  pupil."  "No, 
I  would  prefer  Latin."  Most  answers  were  either  yes  or  no.  In  some 
small  towns  every  answer  was  yes,  while  in  the  large  cities  a  majority 
of  the  answers  were  no.  The  vote  stands:  Yes  71,  no  93,  don't  know  26, 
no  answer  19.  The  explanations  would  indicate  a  much  larger  vote  for 
German  in  a  general  course  -instead  of  the  commercial  course. 

Question  9.  At  what  age  should  a  boy  engage  in  business  in  order 
to  meet  with  the  greatest  success?  This  question  was  understood  by  some 
to  ask  for  the  age  at  which  a  boy  should  begin  business  on  his  own  hook, 
while  others  took  it  to  refer  to  the  age  at  which  a  boy  should  leave 
school  for  a  business  position.  The  tabulation  is  made  from  those  taking 
the  latter  view:  Under  eighteen  12,  between  eighteen  and  twenty-one  60, 
between  twenty-two  and  twenty-five  31,  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  29. 

It  will  be  observed  that  twelve  answers  barely  give  the  boy  time  to 
finish  a  high  school  course,  31  permit  him  to  finish  a  high  school  course 
but  hardly  give  him  time  to  complete  a  college  course,  while  29  give 
him  time  for  a  most  thorough  college  training. 

Question  10.  Should  a  superintendent  or  principal  seek  to  inspire 
high  school  graduates  to  continue  their  education  in  colleges  and  technical 
schools?  Answers:  "Yes,  if  the  student  shows  signs  of  promise."  "Yes, 
if  the  student  has  ability,  otherwise  not."  "It  depends  on  the  student's 
ability  and  desire."  "Yes,  as  the  average  boy  needs  any  amount  of  boost- 
ing." "That  should  be  determined  by  the  individual  fitness,  aims  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  student  in  question."  Much  discretion  should  be  used." 
"Should  not  encourage  the  boy  who  expects  to  engage  in  business."  The 
tabulation:  Yes  180,  no  7,  no  answer  23. 

Question  11.  Students  enter  the  high  school  at  fourteen  and  fifteen 
years.  Is  it  advisable  to  allow  them  to  choose  their  own  studies?  The 
answers  are  yes,  no,  and  slightly:  Yes  27,  no  132,  slightly  34,  don't  know 
10,  no  answer  17.  Several  Lincoln  business  men  voted  in  the  affirmative. 
Omaha  business  men  give  a  large  vote  for  fixed  courses  of  study. 

Question  12.  Is  high  school  discipline  more  rigid  than  it  should  be 
or  is  it  less  rigid  than  it  should  be?  Answers:  Not  rigid  enough."  "The 


136  NORMAL    TRAINING    IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


more  rigid  the  better."  "Strong  discipline  is  necessary  in  rounding  out 
character  but  need  not  be  autocratic."  "Teach  my  boy  obedience  and  I 
will  thank  you."  "I  would  favor  a  continuation  of  room  government 
through  grade  10  at  least."  "It  is  about  right."  "Self  government  is  the 
right  discipline."  "Scholars  should  have  more  freedom."  "Too  rigid 
for  the  early  ages."  The  vote  stands:  Less  rigid  86,  too  rigid  19,  about 
right  75,  don't  know  17,  no  answer  13. 

Question  13.  Mention  three  or  more  defects  in  methods  of  teaching 
•employed  when  you  were  in  school.  Answers:  "I  give  it  up."  "The 
principal  defect  was  in  the  pupils  themselves."  "Can't  remember  so 
far  back."  "The  same  except  fewer  in  number  than  exist  now."  Less 
than  half  the  men  answered  this  question  seriously.  Of  those  who  did, 
ten  said  "too  much  memory  work,"  six  referred  to  "poor  scholarship  on 
the  part  of  teachers." 

Question  14.  Mention  a  few  of  the  most  prominent  defects  in  the 
education  of  high  school  graduates  you  have  had  in  your  employ.  Answers: 
"Inaccurate  in  the  fundamental  operations  of  arithmetic."  "Bad  spelling." 
"Poor  writing."  "Weak  in  composition."  "Lack  of  application."  "Lack  of 
attention  to  details."  "Not  punctual."  "Lack  of  respect  for  authority." 
The  answers  were  so  varied  that  no  tabulation  has  been  attempted. 

Question  15.  Does  the  high  school  exert  the  proper  moral  influence 
over  young  men  and  young  women?  The  tabulation:  Yes  95,  no  30,  don't 
know  31,  might  be  improved  25,  no  answer  29.  Some  of  those  answering 
no  or  suggesting  that  it  might  be  improved  explain  in  their  answers  that 
the  moral  influence  of  the  high  school  is  on  the  whole  good. 

Question  16.  Would  the  fact  that  a  boy  smokes  cigarettes  be  a  bar 
to  taking  him  into  your  employ?  Answers:  "Would  not  keep  one  who 
smokes  cigarettes."  "It  would  not  prevent  my  taking  him  into  my  employ, 
but  it  would  be  somewhat  against  him."  "I  would  influence  him  to  quit 
or  dispense  with  his  services."  "Under  no  circumstances  would  I  have 
him  around."  "Cigarette  smoking  alone  would  not  prevent  my  taking 
him."  "I  have  not  made  a  rule  against  cigarette  smoking,  but  my  e:iperi- 
ence  with  the  cigarette  fiend  has  been  such  as  to  convince  me  of  the  ad- 
visability of  an  absolute  rule  against  it."  Tabulation:  Yes,  absolutely, 
110,  yes,  to  some  extent  69,  no  3,  don't  know  11,  no  answer  17. 

Question  17.  Are  those  who  finish  our  schools  less  accurate  in  arith- 
metic than  pupils  were  twenty  years  ago?  Answers:  Yes  97,  no  63,  don't 
know  41,  no  answer  19. 

Question  18.  Are  pupils  poorer  spellers  than  they  were  twenty  years 
ago?  Yes  110,  no  43,  don't  know  37,  no  answer  20. 

Likely  as  not  the  majority  is  mistaken  on  this  qu  >stion,  also  on  ques- 
tion 17.  There  is  little  doubt,  however,  but  what  the:-*'  s'ibiocts  are  worthy 
of  more  attention  than  is  given  them. 

Question  19.  What  preparation  should  be  demanded  on  the  part 
of  high  school  teachers?  Very  few  attempted  to  answer  this  question. 
A  majority  of  those  who  did  answer  would  demand  a  college  education 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  137 


with  professional  training.     Several  consider  a  normal   school  training 
sufficient. 

Question  20.  In  the  main  are  the  public  schools  making  the  progress 
we  have  a  right  to  expect?  Answers:  Yes  98,  no  19,  don't  know  53,  no 
answer  40. 

Among  the  general  criticisms  that  were  made  under  the  different 
questions  are  the  following:  "The  schools  attempt  to  teach  too  many 
subjects  and  to  cover  too  much  ground  in  each  subject."  "The  influence 
of  football  and  baseball  is  against  good  solid  school  work."  "The  text 
books  are  too  advanced."  "There  is  not  sufficient  drill  on  fundamental 
subjects."  "Teachers  are  not  capable  of  bringing  out  the  practical  phases 
of  the  subjects  they  teach." 

There  is  the  temptation,  but  not  the  time  to  discuss  some  of  the  inter- 
esting points  suggested  by  the  foregoing  tabulations.  It  will  mean%more, 
however,  to  each  one  to  be  permitted  to  make  his  own  summary  and  form 
his  own  conclusions.  These  results  are  of  the  greatest  value,  in  that  they 
are  compiled  from  the  views  of  practical  men  of  affairs  competent  to  speak 
on  these  questions  with  a  degree  of  authority.  The  results  are  very 
similar  to  a  somewhat  broader  investigation  along  these  lines  in  New 
York  state,  during  last  year.  In  both  investigations  tne  work  of  the 
public  schools  has  stood  the  test  expectionally  well. 

To  remedy  the  defects  pointed  out  does  not  require  any  radical 
changes  in  organization  or  management,  simply  a  little  more  thought  and* 
skill  on  the  part  of  teacher  and  superintendent.  The  demand  for  more 
practical  subjects  does  not  seem  to  be  as  great  as  the  demand  for  more 
practical  teachers,  teachers  whose  judgment  and  experience  enables  them 
to  lay  proper  emphasis  on  the  essential  subjects  now  taught.  The  same 
thoroughness  in  teaching  the  common  branches  that  business  men  demand 
is  just  as  necessary  for  the  boy  that  becomes  a  college  student  or  enters 
a  profession.  On  the  whole  the  business  men  are  conservative  and  reason- 
able in  their  criticisms  and  demands. 

However  valuable  this  investigation,  it  is  from  only  one  standpoint, 
that  of 'the  business  man.  Then  again  it  must  be  remembered  that  this 
is  a  general  view.  It  would  be  of  still  greater  value  to  have  tabulations 
from  many  points  of  view.  A  careful  study  of  both  general  and  community 
interests  on  the  part  of  superintendents  throughout  the  state  should  result 
in  a  uniformity  of  courses  and  efforts,  modified  only  by  the  special  needs 
of  each  community.  Further  uniformity  than  this  is  undesirable.  It  is 
therefore  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  superintendent  should  be 
keen  enough  to  see  the  demands  of  his  community,  to  know  its  needs, 
and  resources  and  to  take  such  knowledge  into  account  in  all  school 
arrangements.  It  is  important  to  the  superintendent  in  that  it  raises  him 
to  a  higher  plane  as  an  educator  and  as  a  man  among  men,  important  to 
the  community  in  that  the  school  contributes  in  a  practical  way  to  its 
needs  and  most  vital  interests. 


138  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN  HIGH   SCHOOLS 


'NORMAL  TRAINING  IN   HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

I.  A.  Downey,  Inspector  of  Normal  Training  in  Nebraska  High  Schools. 

PURPOSE.  As  stated  in  Section  24  of  the  enactment  which 
authorizes  normal  training  in  the  high  schools  of  Nebraska,  the  purpose 
13  to  give  teachers  an  opportunity  to  meej:  the  requirements  of  the  law 
which  bars  the  issuance  of  the  first  and  second  grade  certificates  to  ap- 
plicants wl  o  have  not  have  had  a  certain  stipulated  amount  of  normal 
training.  I  have  no  doubt  that  were  this  the  only  end  to  be  conserved, 
we  v/ould  ell  agree  that  both  the  act,  which  requires  normal  training  as 
a  requisite  for  securing  a  certificate,  and  the  act  which  authorizes  normal 
training  in  high  schools,  should  be  speedily  repealed.  Happily,  this  is 
riot  true.  Normal  training  in  high  schools  is  a  means  to  a  far  more 
important  end  than  that  of  enabling  applicants  to  receive  certificates  to 
teach.  The  real  purpese  is  to  equip  prospective  teachers  with  a  degree 
of  scholarship  and  a  knowledge  of  methods,  with  skill  in  their  use, 
which  will  greatly  reduce  the  possibility  of  failure  on  the  part  of  begin- 
ning teachers,  and  at  'the  same  time  increase  the  proficiency  of  those 
who  do  not  fail  utterly. 

NATURE  AND  SCOPE  OF  WORK.  If  this  statement  of  the  real 
purpose  of  normal  training  in  high  schools  be  a  correct  one,  the  first  thing 
to  be  determined  is  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  work  to  be  done.  Th*» 
statute  provides  as  follows: 

"The  course  in  normal  training  shall  be  elective  and  shall  consist 
of  the  three  following  lines  of  study: 

"A.  A  review  for  at  least  nine  weeks  in  each  of  the  following  sub- 
jects: Reading,  Grammar,  Arithmetic  and  Geography,  to  be  given  not 
earlier  than  the  eleventh  grade. 

"B.  The  study  of  American  history  for  at  least  one  semester  in 
the  eleventh  or  twelfth  grade. 

"C.  At  least  72  periods  of  professional  training  to  include  a  study 
of  methods,  school  management,  observation  work,"  etc.,  etc. 

"D.     Elementary  agriculture,  if  not  included  in  the  regular  course." 

SCHOOLS  THAT  MAY  GIVE  NORMAL  TRAINING.  In  order  to 
give  the  normal  training  contemplated  in  the  act  referred  to  above,  a 
high  school  must  comply  with  the  following  general  requirements: 
First,  it  must  be  accredited  to  the  University  of  Nebraska.  Second,  it 
must  have  at  least  two  teachers  exclusive  of  the  city  superintendent,  who 
shall  give  their  entire  time  to  instruction  in  high  school  branches.  Third, 
it  must  have  a  reference  library  of  at  least  three  volumes  on  each  of  the 
following  fields  of  professional  study:  "History  of  Education,"  "Principles 
of  Education,"  "Methods  and  Special  Training  in  Industrial  Education, 
including  Agriculture."  Fourth,  it  shall  teach  a  class  of  not  less  than 
ten  students. 


*Resd  before  the  Superintendents    and  Principals'  Association,  Lincoln, 
October  24/1907. 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  139 


NUMBER  OF  SCHOOLS  APPROVED.  The  state  department  notified 
106  high  schools  (at  least  one  in  each  representative  district  in  the 
state)  that  applications  for  permission  to  do  normal  training  work  would 
be  received  up  to  and  including  a  certain  time,  the  necessary  qualifica- 
tions being  given.  Of  the  number  that  responded,  64  high  schools  accom- 
panied their  applications  with  a  showing  that  seemed  to  justify  the  de- 
partment in  approving  them  for  said  work  for  the  current  school  year. 

FURTHER  TESTS  AND  REQUIREMENTS.  That  these  schools 
may  better  understand  what  further  tests  and  requirements  must  be 
met  in  order  to  receive  a  portion  of  the,  appropriation  for  normal  train- 
ing in  high  schools  for  the  school  year  1907-8,  it  seems  wise  to  give  the 
following  statement:  Efficiency  and  thoroughness  will  be  our  motto, 
The  work  of  each  school  will  be  carefully  inspected.  The  teachers  in 
the  various  departments  of  normal  training  work  must  possess  unques- 
tioned qualifications  to  do  the  work.  The  requirements  as  to  the  teach- 
ing of  the  underlying  principles  as  well  as  the  subject  matter  must  be 
fulfilled.  The  observation  work  must  be  well  done  and  desired  results 
must  be  secured.  The  outlines  of  the  various  subjects  which  have  been 
prepared  by  the  educators  of  the  state  must  be  closely  followed.  The  stu- 
dents must  meet  the  tests  of  examinations  which  will  be  conducted  by  the 
state  department  under  the  rules  governing  the  examinations  for  teachers' 
certificates.  The  questions  for  these  examinations  will  be  based  upon 
the  outlines  just  mentioned. 

AN  IDEAL.  This  normal  training  is  to  be  a  teacher-making  process 
and  it  should  be  the  aim  of  every  school  doing  the  work  to  make  each 
student  in  this  course  the  possessor  of  a  first  grade  county  certificate 
at  the  time  of  graduation.  The  grades  earned  in  the  examinations  re- 
ferred to  in  the  above  statement,  if  not  too  low,  will  stand  to  the  credit 
of  the  students  earning  them  to  apply  on  a  county  certificate.  But  since 
the  normal  training  course  covers  but  seven  subjects,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  each  student  to  earn  a  passing  grade  before  the  state  committee  in 
twelve  other  subjects  in  order  to  secure  a  first  grade  county  certificate. 

It  will  be  the  part  of  wisdom  for  schools  to  .induce  their  students 
to  be  examined  in  at  least  a  part  of  these  subjects  in  the  junior  year 
to  the  end  that  the  work  in  the  senior  year  shall  not  be  too  heavy.  How- 
ever, if  we  are  to  reach  our  ideal  of  a  county  certificate  in  the  hands  of 
each  normal  graduate  at  the  end  of  the  present  school  year,  many  stu- 
dents will  find  it  necessary  to  take  all  of  the  examinations  during  the 
senior  year.  This,  however,  should  not  be  done  if  it  will  entail  too  much 
work  upon  students  who  are  already  heavily  burdened.  Better  let  them 
go  out  and  teach  on  a  lower  grade  certificate  next  year  than  to  break  them 
down  physically  this  year. 

It  may  be  suggested  that  the  possession  of  a  first  grade  county  cer- 
tificate at  graduation  is  too  much  to  expect  of  the  average  student.  In 
reply  to  this  possible  suggestion,  permit  me  to  say  that  the  high  school 
of  Dakota  City,  Nebraska,  even  in  the  absence  of  a  normal  training  course, 


140  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


makes  the  possession  of  a  county  first  grade  certificate  a  condition  of 
graduation.  So  also  does  St.  Catherine's  Academy  at  Jackson  and  St. 
Mary's  Academy  at  O'Neill.  What  has  been  done  can  be  done.  What  is 
being  done  in  an  eleven  grade  school  can  be  done  in  a  twelve  grade  school. 

WHAT  FAILURE  MAY  MEAN.  The  failure  of  any  considerable  per- 
cent of  the  students  in  any  school  to  earn  passing  grades  in  the  seven 
subjects  required  for  normal  training,  while  it  may  not  affect  that  school's 
right  to  share  in  the  appropriation  for  the  current  year,  will  endanger 
its  chances  for  approval  for  normal  training  work  during  the  following 
year.  To  aid  schools  to  guard  against  the  possibility  of  such  failure,  I 
wish  to  commend  the  following  suggestions:  First,  the  work  in  every 
subject  should  be  presented  by  the  teacher  best  qualified  to  give  it. 
Second,  sufficient  time  should  be  given  to  each  subject  to  complete  the 
work  thoroughly  and  in  accordance  with  the  outline  submitted.  Third, 
the  professional  work  should  be  so  well  presented  and  the  observation 
work  so  extensive  and  well  supervised  that  students  may  secure  not  only 
a  splendid  pedagogical  equipment,  but  also  such  a  conception  of  the 
importance  of  the  teaching  profession  as  will  enable  them  to  enter  it 
With  the  promise  of  a  fair  degree  of  success. 

TIME  TO  BE  DEVOTED  TO  REVIEWS.  I  am  convinced  that  nine 
weeks  is  entirely  too  short  a  time  to  make  a  thorough  review  of  any 
one  of  the  four  subjects  to  be  reviewed.  In  fact,  twelve  weeks  seems 
quite  short  enough  and  eighteen  weeks  not  too  long. 

.  Educators  who  have  been  doing  work  in  secondary  schools,  only, 
may  question  my  judgment  in  this  matter,  but  those  who  have  been  inti- 
mately connected  with  work  in  elementary  schools  and  who,  therefore, 
better  understand  the  need  of  more  thorough  instruction  in  the  common 
branches,  will  accept  the  statement  without  question.  In  times  past,  too 
much  time  has  been  given  to  subjects  which  have  .been  regarded  as 
giving  the  best  results  in  mental  discipline,  and,  because  of  this  fact, 
much  that  has  been  regarded  as  being  indispensable  in  a  high  school 
course  is  in  disfavor  with  the  mass  of  the  people  who  are"  constantly  cry- 
ing out  for  something  more  practical.  To  remedy  this  condition  our 
secondary  schools,  which  should  be  as  much  the  schools  of  the  people  and 
for  the  people  as  are  the  elementary  schools,  must  be  made  to  conform 
to  this  popular  demand.  Statistics  of  our  own  state  show  that  in  re- 
cent years,  of  every  23  graduates  from  our  high  schools,  6  enter  higher 
schools,  8  enter  at  once  into  business  or  professions  other  than  that  of 
teaching,  and  9  enter  the  teaching  profession.  In  the  face  of  these  facts, 
it  seems  very  unwise  to  bend  all  of  our  energies  in  the  direction  of  se- 
curing university  credits  rather  than  to  the  giving  of  a  practical  education, 
for  in  the  first  instance,  but  6  people  are  specifically  benefited,  while  in 
the  second  17  people  are  prepared  for  the  serious  business  and  strenuous 
activities  of  life.  The  writer  has  no  disposition  to  hinder  the  promotion  of 
higher  education.  In  fact,  he  knows  that  if  a  larger  per  cent  of  our  stu- 
dents could  be  induced  to  pursue  studies  in  higher  institutions,  before 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  141 


entering  upon  business  activities,  the  best  interests  of  the  state  at  large 
would  be  conserved,  but  since  we  are  dealing  with  stern  facts,  we  should 
-arrange  our  high  school  course  to  meet  the  conditions  which  result  from 
these  facts.  In  this  connection  I  wish  to  quote  Fasset  A.  Cotton,  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Indiana,  who,  in  discussing  this 
phase  of  the  problem  of  education,  said: 

"The  only  simple,  rational  basis  of  solution  is  to  plan  the  work  with 
regard  to  the  needs  of  the  masses  instead  of  the  needs  of  the  few.  In 
other  words,  in  both  town  and  country  the  school  work  is  to  be  planned  so 
as  to  prepare  life,  instead  of  preparing  for  some  advanced  school. 
Education  for  every  child  should  be  complete  at  any  period  in  the  course. 
That  is,  every  child,  at  any  stage  of  its  advancement,  should  be  all  that 
it  is  possible  for  it  to  be  at  that  time.  Education  which  prepares  best 
for  life  ought  to  prepare  best  for  advanced  work.  And  in  preparing  for 
life  education  is  to  be  life.  It  is  to  let  the  child  live  joyously  in  his  work. 
We  have  been  trying  all  these  years  to  fit  the  child  to  our.  theories,  in- 
stead of  fitting  our  processes  to  the  nature  of  the  child." 

For  a  review  of  American  history,  one  semester  may  be  adequate,  and 
while  it  is  permissible  to  do  this  work  in  connection  with  your  regular 
class  in  that  subject,  it  seems  hardly  advisable  since  we  are  to  teach 
method  as  well  as  subject  matter.  However,  it  might  be  well  to  reverse 
the  statement  and  say  that  it  will  be  advisable  to  do  the  regular  class 
work  in  this  subject  in  connection  with  the  normal  training  work.  This 
will  require  the  regular  work  to  comply  with  the  normal  training  require- 
ments and  will  at  the  same  time  be  a  means  of  culture  to  the  students 
who  are  not  taking  the  normal  training  course.  It  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  for  one  semester's  work  in  review  of  American  history,  the  University 
gives  one  credit,  and  for  two  semester's  work,  two  credits. 

The  72  periods  of  pedagogical  work  required  may  be  crowded  into 
one  semester,  but  doubtless  more  thorough  work  will  be  done  if  this  teach- 
ing shall  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  senior  year. 

All  of  the  work  in  this  course  is  important,  but  since  ours  is  strictly 
an  agricultural  state,  too  much  stress  cannot  be  put  upon  the  importance 
of  the  work  of  teaching  elementary  agriculture.  This  subject  would  better 
not  be  taught  at  all  in  our  elementary  schools  than  to  be  poorly  taught. 
In  fact,  very  few  teachers  in  our  high  schools  are  well  qualified  to  teach 
this  subject  and  fewer  schools  are  well  equipped  with  the  necessary 
apparatus  and  facilities  for  experimental  and  observation  work.  There 
is  no  room  in  a  paper  of  this  character  to  give  a  list  of  the  necessary 
equipment  for  laboratory  work,  and  I  can  only  refer  you  to  the  list  given 
on  pages  140  and  141  of  the  Biennial  Report  for  1906,  and  to  suggest  that 
homemade  apparatus  which  will  answer  the  purpose  of  experiments  will 
be  approved.  Professor  Alvin  Keyser,  Assistant  Agronomist  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska,  in  a  discussion  of  the  value  of  experiments  made 
with  simple  apparatus  said: 

"I  am  convinced  that  the  simpler  the  apparatus  and  the  more  evident 


142  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


the  demonstration,  the  greater  the  interest  in  the  subject,  and  the  more 
thorough  the  result  obtained." 

This  is  a  very  happy  statement  of  a  well  known  principle  in  educa- 
tion. A  full  year  is  necessary  to  do  the  work  in  agriculture  well,  but  one 
semester  is  the  minimum  that  will  be  required. 

REQUIRED  NUMBER  IN  CLASS,  As  has  already  been  noted,  each 
school  must  have  a  class  of  not  less  than  ten  students.  The  presumption 
is  that  these  students  shall  enter  upon  this  work  in  absolute  good  faith 
and  with  no  other  purpose  in  mind  than  to  equip  themselves  for  the  teach- 
ing profession.  There  is  no  place  here  for  a  student  who  is  merely  striving 
to  earn  a  high  school  diploma  and  who  may  select  this  course  because  of 
his  inability  to  complete  the  regular  course.  The  failure  of  any  student 
to  take  the  examinations  in  the  seven  subjects  regularly  conducted  by 
this  department  will  be  accepted  as  an  indication  that  he  is  not  a  bona 
fide  student  in  this  course,  but  is,  instead,  a  spurious  article. 

PROBABILITY  OF  SUCCESS.  Normal  training  work  in  our  high 
schools  must  succeed.  It  has  been  successfully  done  in  the  state  of  New 
York  for  75  years  and  it  can  be  done  in  Nebraska.  It  can  be  done,  too, 
without  weakening  the  high  school  course.  On  the  contrary,  it  will  in 
time  strengthen  the  course  and  bring  it  to  the  same  recognition  in  higher 
institutions  that  it  has  heretofore  enjoyed.  In  addition  to  this  it  will  ulti- 
mately, not  only  increase  the  attendance  at  the  state  normal  schools,  col- 
leges and  universities,  and  exalt  and  dignify  the  work  of  those  schools, 
but  it  will  also  increase  the  attendance  and  raise  the  standard  of  the  ef- 
ficiency of  the  students  in  these  higher  institutions.  This  will  be  true 
because  of  the  fact  that  these  teacher-preparing  schools  in  the  future  will 
be  instructing  students  instead  of  pupils,  thus  raising  the  course  from 
an  academic  to  a  collegiate  one.  The  funds  received  and  the  experience 
obtained  by  those  who  enter  the  teaching  profession  direct  from  the  high 
schools,  will  at  once  make  it  possible  for  them  to  enter  higher  institutions 
and  make  of  them  the  highest  type  of  students.  Many  able  educators  could 
be  quoted  in  favor  of  this  work,  but  I  shall  be  content  to  give  a  statement 
from  two. 

President  J.  W.  Crabtree,  of  the  Peru  State  Normal,  in  the  last  issue 
of  the  Nebraska  Teacher,  made  use  of  this  statement: 

"Normal  training  in  the  high  schools  means  everything  to  the  country 
schools.  Districts  should  make  an  effort  to  get  teachers  who  have  had  a 
more  thorough  course  of  training  than  can  be  given  in  the  high  school, 
but  the  normal  schools  do  not  send  out  teachers  for  half  the  places  that 
must  be  filled.  The  high  school  gives  a  much  better  preparation  than 
was  given  by  the  average  normal  school  of  two  decades  ago." 

Prof.  A.  H.  Waterhouse,  Principal  of  the  Omaha  high  school, 
who  has  already  demonstrated  the  possibility  of  the  success  of  this  move- 
ment, said  in  a  report  to  the  state  department: 

"I  am  quite  enthusiastic  over  this  matter  now,  and  feel  that  the  various 
subjects  are  in  charge  of  people  who  will  so  make  them  their  burden  as 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  143 


to  work  out  as  good  courses  as  prospective  teachers  can  get  anywhere 
in  the  same  time." 

Fellow  educators,  let  us  go  at  this  business  as  if  we  were  confident 
that  the  continued  happiness  and  prosperity  of  our  people,  the  perpetuity 
of  our  state  and  nation,  and  the  destiny  of  our  posterity  depended  upon  it, 
and  success  tar  beyond  the  hope  of  the  most  sanguine  will  crown  our 
efforts. 

*NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  LINCOLN 
Margaret.  Hall. 

The  plan  of  work  for  this  first  class  was  necessarily  tentative,  as 
the  bulletin  from  the  state  superintendent's  office,  outlining  the  course, 
had  not  yet  been  issued.  The  first  semester,  a  seventy-minute  period 
was  devoted  each  day  to  the  study  of  the  principles  of  teaching,  and  the 
young  women  in  the  class  were  urged  to  take  as  many  reviews  as  possible 
in  the  regular  classes  in  arithmetic,  grammar,  history,  etc.  To  get  some 
*Read  before  the  Superintendents  and  Principals'  Association,  Lincoln, 

October  24,  1907. 

basis  for  my  plan  of  work,  I  had  required  the  class  to  answer  a  list  of 
questions.  I  asked  them  to  state  honestly  and  definitely  why  they  had 
registered  for  the  work,  what  practical  good  they  expected  to  get  from 
it,  what  their  conception  of  teaching  was,  their  ideal  of  teacher,  and 
what  sort  of  teachers  they  thought  rural  schools  should  have.  Some  of 
the  young  women  were  terrified  by  the  questions.  An  entirely  new  point 
of  view  was  required  and  a  side  of  teaching  was  presented,  quite  different 
from  that  with  which  they  were  familiar  as  pupils.  Most  of  the  girls 
had  thought  of  the  class  merely  as  preparation  for  passing  the  examina- 
tions for  certificates.  They  dreaded  the  examinations  and  had  an  idea 
that  their  certificates  would  be  assured  them  and  the  whole  difficulty 
settled  if  they  but  registered  in  this  class.  I,  on  the  other  hand,  had  con- 
sidered the  class  valuable  primarily  as  preparation  for  teaching,  thinking 
that  after  eleven  and  a  half  years  in  the  city  grades  and  high  school, 
the  young  women  should  be  able  to  pass  examinations  without  trouble. 
I  referred  the  matter  to  Dr.  Sanders,  asking  him  whether  I  was  to  try 
to  prepare  the  class  to  teach,  or  merely  to  pass  examinations.  He  directed 
me  to  prepare  them'  to  teach,  and  so  from  the  first  in  the  review  classes, 
as  well  as  in  the  teachers'  class,  the  emphasis  has  been  placed  primarily 
upon  the  subject  itself  and  upon  the  teaching  of  the  subject  rather  than 
upon  the  examinations. 

Our  normal  course  has  been  extended  each  year  until  now  it  includes 
full-semester  reviews  in  all  the  required  subjects,  a  class  in  agriculture, 
and  also  two  semesters  of  instruction  in  teaching,  including  pedagogy, 
observation  and  reports,  special  methods,  school  management,  lesson 


In  December,  1905,  Dr.  Sanders  responded  to  Mr.  McBrien's  appeal 
for  normal  training  in  the  high  school  by  arranging  for  a  "teachers' 
class"  for  the  next  semester. 


44  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN    HIGH    SCHOOLS 


planning,  and  some  experimental  teaching.     This  two-semester  class  we 
call  the  "teachers'  class"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  review  classes. 

Since  I  have  the  teachers'  class  and  the  reading  and  geography  re- 
views, I  can  discuss  them  more  in  detail.  The  other  reviews  are  in  the 
hands  of  competent  special  department  teachers  who,  in  addition  to  giving 
a  thorough  review  of  the  subject,  lead  the  young  women  to  approach  the 
subject,  as  far  as  possible,  from  the  teacher's  standpoint.  Whenever  pos- 
sible members  of  the  class  are  allowed  to  conduct  the  class  or  instruct 
individuals  who  have  missed  explanation. 

The  first  semester  of  the  teachers'  class  is  devoted  to  general  or  in- 
troductory work  intended  to  change  the  attitude  of  the  members  of  the 
class  from  that  of  pupils  to  that  of  teachers,  to  give  general  principles 
of  teaching  so  the  young  women  may  observe  and  receive  later  instruction 
in  methods,  etc.,  more  intelligently;  and  finally  to  generate  the  true 
teaching  interest  and  spirit. 

The  first  six  weeks  are  devoted  to  a  rapid  survey  of  the  history  of 
education  through  class  talks  and  lectures.  National  conceptions  of  educa- 
tion and  the  influences  determining  the  quality  of  educational  activity  in  a 
country,  are  considered;  courses  of  study  are  criticized;  noted  educators 
are  introduced  and  their  ideas  and  theories  studied.  At  first  the  class  are 
inclined  to  object  to  this  part  of  the  course,  thinking  it  too  remote  from 
their  immediate  need  as  they  see  it;  but  the  final  results  have  always 
been  so  satisfactory  that  I  should  consider  it  a  decided  loss  if  this  part 
of  the  course  were  dropped.  One  young  woman  who  objected  vigorously 
at  first  declared  at  the  close  of  the  six  weeks  that  she  considered  the 
survey  of  the  history  of  education  excellent  preparation  for  the  work 
which  would  follow,  closing  with  the  remark,  "I  have  always  before 
thought  of  teaching  merely  as  a  money  proposition.  I  am  now  so  im- 
pressed with  the  responsibility  of  the  teacher  that  I  hardly  feel  worthy 
to  undertake  the  work." 

Our  young  teachers  certainly  need  to  have  an  interest  in  education  for 
its  own  sake,  and  should  be  impressed  with  the  importance  of  right 
methods  as  early  as  possible.  They  should  also  have  some  acquaintance 
with  the  noted  educators  and  their  theories.  Why  not  give  them  all  this 
at  the  beginning  of  the  course  as  a  means  of  preparing  the  ground,  as 
it  were,  for  the  special  work  of  the  course,  and  of  bringing  the  class 
into  the  right  attitude  toward  their  new  work? 

The  remaining  twelve  weeks  of  the  first  semester  are  devoted  to  the 
study  of  the  general  principles  of  teaching  and  to  observation.  We  have 
a  good  teachers'  library.  A  list  of  readings  has  been  prepared  on  such 
subjects  as  "Memory,"  "Interest,"  "Habit,"  "Perception,"  etc.,  and  the 
class  are  required  to  read  at  least  two  authors  on  each  subject.  These 
same  subjects  and  others  are  explained  and  discussed  in  class,  especial 
emphasis  being  placed  on  the  practical  application  of  the  principles. 
During  this  time  the  class  are  observing  at  least  one  period  a  week  in 
the  city  schools  from  the  kindergarten  up.  The  reports  of  these  observa- 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  145 


tions  are  given  orally  at  least  once  a  week  and  have  been  enthusiastic,  in- 
teresting, and  intelligent. 

The  second  semester  is  devoted  to  more  special  work — to  readings 
and  discussions  on  school  organization  and  management,  and  qualifica- 
tions of  the  teacher,  followed  by  a  close  study  of  methods  in  reading, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  and  spelling.  At  the  same  time  the 
class  are  making  special  observations.  When  geography  methods  are  be- 
ing studied,  observations  of  geography  lessons  are  being  made  and  re- 
ported. 

Lesson  plans,  some  presentation,  examination  of  text-books,  and  the 
writing  of  letters  of  application  are  features  of  this  work. 

We  have  a  full  semester  for  the  reading  review.  Sherman  and^leed's 
Essentials  in  the  text-book  studied.  In  addition  to  this  we  study  the  art 
of  story  telling,  and  review  the  classics  which  might  be  read  in  the  rural 
schools.  "The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,"  "Hiawatha,"  "Evangeline," 
and  other  poems  are  reread  and  practice  is  given  in  adapting  parts  to 
the  understanding  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades.  The  poems  are  closely 
scrutinized  for  the  possibilities  they  hold  for  young  pupils.  Practical 
conclusions  are  drawn  from  a  rereading  of  the  classics  from  the  teachers' 
standpoint.  The  class  found  that  "Hiawatha,"  for  instance,  contained 
almost  unlimited  material  for  language  lessons,  oral  and  written;  for 
visualization,  and  for  exercises  in  expressions  through  drawing. 

Assignments   and   lessons   are   planned,   and   ten-minute   lessons   on 

sections  of  the  poem  or  sketch,  the  aim  being  to  make  the  reading  as. 
interesting  as  possible  in  the  short  time  allowed;  and  by  a  wise  selection 
of  points,  to  stimulate  the  pupils  to  read  intelligently  for  themselves.  As 
yet  these  lessons  are  crude,  but  the  class  are  appreciating  more  and  more 
the  child's  point  of  view. 

We  plan  also  to  study  lists  of  examination  questions,  largely  to  sug- 
gest the  points  in  reading  which  a  teacher  must  consider. 

In  the  geography  class,  in  addition  to  the  regular  review  work,  special 
credit  is  given  for  the  preparation  of  good  geography,  note  and  scrap 
books.  We  have  access  to  a  great  many  excellent  books  and  periodicals 
from  which  the  class  take  notes.  They  also  make  clippings  from  good 
sources,  the  purpose  being  to  accumulate  as  much  interesting  material 
as  possible  to  supplement  the  text-books  used  in  the  rural  schools  in 
which  the  members  of  the  class  may  teach.  This  arouses  in  the  members 
of  the  review  class  a  genuine  interest  in  geography. 

The  University  draws  so  largely  from  our  senior  class  that  our 
teachers'  class  necessarily  smaller  than  it  would  be  in  a  much  smaller 
town.  What  we  lack  in  quantity  we  more  than  make  up  in  quality.  So 
far  our  prospective  teachers  have  been  drawn  from  the  most  earnest, 
most  intelligent,  mature,  and,  fortunately,  the  most  refined  and  attractive 
young  women  in  the  school. 


146  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


"NORMAL   TRAINING    IN    BEATRICE    HIGH    SCHOOL. 

Emma  Wilhelmson. 

Our  interest  in  high  school  normal  training  is  no  longer  merely  theo- 
retical. After  having  given  it  one  year's  trial,  we  can  now  discuss  it  ex- 
perimentally. Before  registering  any  student  in  that  course  we  ask  her  the 
question:  Are  you  going  to  teach  when  you  finish  high  school?  And 
only  such  as  answer  in  the  affirmative,  and  who  are  not  under  16  years 
of  age,  are  admitted  to  this  course. 

The  normal  branches  are  taught  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades. 
No  pupil  can  register  for  a  normal  study  who  has  not  completed  tenth 
grade  work. 

As  mapped  out  in  our  course  of  study,  copies  of  which  have  been  dis- 
tributed among  you,  we  have  three  regular  courses  in  high  school — Com- 
mercial, Latin,  Scientific  and  English-German,  and  beginning  with  the 
eleventh  grade,  the  normal  course  may  be  elected  by  prospective  teachers. 

Each  normal  branch  is  carried  eighteen  weeks,  or  one  semester, 
except  American  history,  which  is  carried  a  whole  year,  and  by  devot- 
ing that  length  of  time  to  each,  the  pupils  are  able  to  review  the  subjects 
quite  thoroughly,  receive  instruction  in  methods  of  presentation  and 
observe  methods  of  instruction  used  in  the  lower  grades. 

In  all  the  normal  branches  we  try  to  follow  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  outlines  of  the  various  subjects  as  prepared  by  the  special  commit- 
tees appointed  by  the  state  superintendent  last  year. 

In  reading  we  use  "Sherman  and  Reed's"  text  as  a  basis  for  study, 
besides  covering  as  much  as  possible  of  American  literature.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  study  of  methods  of  teaching  beginners  how  to  read  the 
class  visits  the  primary  grades  and  observes  the  instruction  given  there. 
In  preparing  any  selection  for  a  reading  lesson,  each  pupil  is  expected  to 
prepare  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  able  to  conduct  the  recitation  if  called 
upon  to  do  so.  Students  are  frequently  required  in  the  study  bf  any 
poem  or  prose  selection  to  outline  a  model  lesson  on  that  selection. 

Each  member  of  the  class  is  required  to  read  Sarah  Louise  Arnold's 
book  on  How  to  Teach  Reading. 

Though  not  one  of  the  required  essentials,  we  have  a  half  year's 
review  in  physiology  for  the  purpose  of  broadening  the  outlook  in  that 
subject.  A  great  many  simple  experiments  are  made,  such  as  any  teacher 
might  do  in  a  district  school. 

In  grammar  we  aim  to  give  a  thorough  review  of  the  subject,  using 
Hoenshel's  text  for  a  skeleton.  The  pupils  are  required  to  inform  them- 
selves regarding  the  opinions  of  the  five  or  six  other  grammarians  whose 
texts  may  be  found  in  the  reference  library.  Above  all,  they  are  urged 
to  help  pupils  form  the  habit  of  always  speaking  grammatically.  At 
different  times  the  student  is  called  upon  to  conduct  the  recitation,  after 


*Read   before  the  Superintendents    and  Principals'  Association,  Lincoln, 
October  24,  1907. 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  147 


which  her  methods  and  plans  are  discussed  and  criticized  by  the  class. 
Every  few  days  it  is  announced  to  some  pupil  in  the  class  that  she  is 
expected  to  conduct  the  class  in  grammar  the  next  day.  And  here  is  where 
she  may  turn  her  plans  and  theories  into  realizations.  Suppose  the  les- 
son in  about  infinitives.  The  pupil-teacher  must  look  up  the  subject  in 
all  the  reference  grammars  we  have.  Then  she  is  directed  to  plan  care- 
fully how  to  develop  the  subject,  going  always  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown,  and  must  present  it  in  a  forceful  and  logical  manner.  The  work 
in  the  grades  is  also  observed  and  using  the  Nebraska  course  of  study  as 
a  guide  we  make  a  plan  of  the  work  for  the  lower  grades. 

At  the  regular  (quarterly  meetings,  held  by  the  city  grade  teachers, 
the  work  of  the  following  quarter  is  discussed  and  model  recitations  in 
reading;  language,  arithmetic,  geography,  etc.,  are  conducted  by  some 
of  the  best  teachers  in  the  city  schools.  Our  normal  classes  are  per- 
mitt.rd  to  attend  these  teachers'  meetings  and  there  gain  a  great  deal 
in  the  line  of  methods  and  devices. 

The  normal  arithmetic  work  is  a  half  year's  thorough  review  of  the 
subject,  and  instruction  in  the  best  methods  of  presentation.  Devices 
are  shown  to  give  the  class  suggestions  for  their  prospective  teaching. 

A  thorough  course  in  American  history  is  carried  during  the  whole 
of  the  senior  year.  The  Source  Method  is  used,  including  a  great  deal 
of  note  book  work,  outlining  and  writing  of  papers. 

The  course  in  geography  is  intended  to  be  a  review  of  physical,  in- 
dustrial, commercial  and  political  geography,  their  relations  to  each  other, 
toeether  with  methods  of  instruction;  how  to  handle  globes,  maps,  conduct 
field  excursions,  etc.  The  pupil  is  trained  to  trace  the  cause  and  effect 
of  every  geographical  condition.  In  our  equipment  we  have  weather  maps, 
topographical  maps,  models,  atlases,  political  maps,  geological  speci- 
mens, globes,  etc.;  also  a  stereopticon  lantern.  The  city  library  is  well 
supplied  with  reference  works  on  geography  and  travel.  In  visiting  the 
grades  the  students  are  required  to  notice  the  method  of  presentation,  in- 
cluding all  the  little  devices,  such  as  sand  tables,  produce  maps,  etc.  We 
also  study  the  plan  for  the  grades  as  outlined  by  Dr.  Condra  in  the  state 
course  of  study.  We  notice  the  correlation  of  geography  and  nature 
study  throughout  the  course  and  particularly  in  the  lower  grades,  where 
no  text-book  is  used. 

Agriculture  not  being  in  the  regular  course  of  study,  is  a  new  sub- 
ject for  the  class.  We  use  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill's  Agriculture  as  a 
text,  but  also  refer  to  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture,  and  Bessey, 
Bruner  and  Swezey's  text.  Our  city  library  has  a  great  many  pamphlets 
and  magazine  articles  on  various  agriculture  subjects,  to  which  the  pupils 
are  constantly  referred.  We  have  also  the  farmers'  bulletins  from  the 
agricultural  department.  Our  school  is  not  yet  equipped  for  as  extensive 
laboratory  work  in  agriculture  as  the  committee  suggests,  but  a  great 
number  of  the  simpler  experiments  and  observations  are  made  in  con- 
nection with  the  study  of  the  soil,  plants  and  their  diseases,  insects, 


148  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


field,  farm  and  orchard  crops..  We  have  access  to  the  equipments  of  the 
chemistry,  physics  and  botany  laboratories.  For  instruction  in  presenta- 
tion of  the  subject,  the  pupils  study  the  outline  in  nature  work  as  given 
in  the  state  course  of  study. 

The  work  in  pedagogy  is  a  half  year's  course  in  school  manage- 
ment given  by  our  city  superintendent.  White's  Elements  of  Pedagogy 
is  used  as  a  text.  The  professional  instruction  includes  a  study  of  the 
theory  and  principles  of  education,  methods  of  instuction,  management 
and  discipline  of  grade  and  district  schools,  together  with  systematic 
observation  work  followed  by  discussions. 

The  last  half  of  the  senior  year  we  are  going  to  let  the  members  of 
the  training  class  spend  about  an  hour  each  day  for  about  a  week  in 
some  of  the  lower  grades,  observing  the  teacher's  methods  and  assisting 
her,  if  possible.  Then  under  her  guidance  and  direction  the  student- 
teacher  will  be  given  a  chance  to  present  subjects  for  about  an  hour  each 
day  for  a  week.  Since  there  are  about  twenty  of  the  lower  grades  within 
easy  reach  of  the  high  school,  no  one  grade  teacher  will  need  to  be  bur- 
dened with  more  than  two  and  most  of  them  with  only  one  student- 
teacher  during  the  half  year,  and  then  for  only  about  an  hour  each  day 
for  about  two  weeks. 

This  is  a  synopsis  of  what  we  are  doing  in  Beatrice,  and  we  be- 
lieve that  our  normal  training  students  are  receiving  just  as  broad  a 
general  education  as  the  others,  and  in  addition  are  receiving  a  profes- 
sional training,  so  that  the  boys  and  girls  who  come  under  their  charge 
will  not  lose  the  time  they  otherwise  would  lose  if  their  teachers  had 
made  no  special  preparation  for  their  work. 

*NORMAL    TRAINING— OUR    WORK    AT    BROKEN    BOW. 

J.  M.  Mclndoo. 

Without  any  attempt  at  being  exhaustive,  it  is  hoped  that  the  follow- 
ing outline  will  prove  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  give  a  general  idea 
of  normal  training  as  it  is  being  given  and  as  it  is  planned  to  be  given 
in  the  Broken  Bow  high  school. 

It  has  been  the  endeavor  to  plan  the  course  of  study  so  as  to  har- 
monize the  requirements  of  the  State  University  with  those  of  the  state 
department  for  normal  training.  Some  shifting  of  subjects  had  to  be 
made,  but  none  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the  school.  The  sub- 
jects comprehended  in  the  normal  training  work  appear  in  the  course 
as  follows: 

Agriculture  is  given  during  the  first  semester  of  the  eleventh  grade; 
geography  and  reading  are  given  during  the  second  semester  of  the  elev- 
enth grade,  nine  weeks  being  given  to  each  subject.  All  members  of 
the  eleventh  grade  take  agriculture  and  the  class  is  not  sectioned  in  this 
work.  All  members  of  the  grade  take  geography  and  reading,  but  the 

*Read  before  the  Superintendents    and  Principals'  Association,  Lincoln, 
October  24,  1907. 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  149 


class  is  sectioned,  those  in  the  normal  training  work  pursuing  cnese  sub- 
jects from  the  standpoint  of  the  teacher,  while  the  members  of  the  grade, 
not  in  the  normal  training  work,  emphasize  the  subject  matter  with  no 
reference  to  methods  of  teaching. 

American  history  is  taken  up  during  the  first  semester  of  the  twelfth 
grade.  The  class  is  not  sectioned  and  the  entire  time  is  devoted  to  sub- 
ject matter,  so  that  the  class  may  do  fully  the  work  required  by  the  State 
University.  The  method  work  in  history  is  given  to  the  normal  training 
class  in  connection  with  their  study  of  methods  in  the  various  branches. 
The  outline  as  given  in  the  normal  training  bulletin  is  followed,  as  it 
is  also  in  the  other  subjects  in  the  normal  training  work. 

Arithmetic  and  English  grammar  are  both  taken  during  the  second 
semester,  these  subjects  being  pursued  as  separate  parallel  studies,  and 
each  running  for  eighteen  weeks.  The  class  is  sectioned  in  both  subjects, 
the  same  plan  being  pursued  as  in  geography  and  reading.  Those  not  in 
the  normal  training  work  take  these  subjects  each  five  times  a  week, 
but  those  in  the  normal  training  work  give  a  part  of  the  time  to  observ- 
ation work  and  practice  teaching,  perhaps  once  or  twice  a  week  as  con- 
ditions may  demand.  A  part  of  the  time  could  be  taken  from  one  sub- 
ject for  observation  work  and  a  part  from  the  other  for  practice  teach- 
ing. 
A  Brief  Outline  of  the  Work  in  Pedagogy  as  it  is  Given  in  the  Broken 

Bow    High    School. 

Since  educational  principles  are  based  on  psychological  facts,  no 
better  foundation  can  be  laid  in  pedagogy  than  to  give  some  attention 
to  a  study  of  psychology,  not  an  exhaustive  study,  but  a  brief  consider- 
ation of  the  elements  of  the  subject. 

The  first  three  weeks  are  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  elements  of  psy- 
chology as  given  in  White's  Pedagogy.  My  last  year's  class  did  this  work 
successfully  as  did,  also,  this  year's  class. 

Following  this  work  a  study  of  the  theory  and  principles  of  teaching  is 
taken  up.  This  work  continues  for  about  six  weeks,  during  which  time 
the  class  are  thoroughly  grounded  in  the  theory  and  principles  of  teach- 
ing. White's  Pedagogy  and  Art  of  Teaching  are  used  as  texts,  with  con- 
stant reference  to  the  pedagogical  library.  In  this  connection  a  word 
might  be  said  about  our  pedagogical  library.  We  have  recently  pur- 
chased about  thirty-five  volumes  of  reference  works  on  pedagogy  alone. 
About  twenty  are  for  general  reference  work  in  pedagogy  and  fifteen 
for  special  reference.  I  am  making  myself  familiar  with  this  library, 
so  that  I  can  intelligently  direct  my  students  in  its  use.  I  am  having  them 
do  a  little  collateral  reading  each  day  on  the  topic  under  consideration. 
I  have  two  objects  in  view  in  this  work;  to  get  additional  information 
on  the  topic  under  consideration,  and  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  professional 
reading. 

After  a  study  of  the  theory  and  principles  of  teaching,  about  three 
weeks  are  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  district  school  organization  and 


150  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


management,   using   Seeley's   New   School   Management   as   a  text,   con- 
stantly referring  to  White's  Management  and  other  reference  texts. 

While  doing  the  observation  work  last  year,  incidentally  we  did  some 
practical  work  in  management.  Without  detracting  from  the  work  in 
observation  pupils  took  notes  of  how  the  teacher  managed  her  room.  This 
I  found  very  helpful  in  fixing  in  a  practical  way  the  theories  they  had 
been  getting  in  their  text  book  and  class  room  work.  I  shall  follow  a 
similar  plan  this  year. 

The  last  six  weeks  of  the  first  semester4  are  given  to  the  study  of 
methods  in  the  various  branches,  followed  by  observation  work  in  each 
branch.  This  work  will  be  continued  once  or  twice  a  week  during  the 
second  semester;  oftener  if  conditions  demand  it.  The  work  in  practice 
teaching  will  be  given  during  the  second  semester.  Practice  teaching  in 
any  subject  will  follow  the  observation  work  in  that  branch. 

In  the  observation  work  the  following  plan  will  be  followed:  The 
teacher  will  be  selected  for  the  work  for  which  she  seenr-  l>  -rt  fittprl. 
She  will  be  assigned  the  work  a  sufficient  length  of  timo  to  ri"e  h°r 
ample  time  for  preparation.  The  student-teacher  will  also  be  £iv?n  spec- 
ial preparation  for  this  observation  work.  All  this  work  is  to  l;e  care- 
fully reviewed  and  discussed,  with  the  model  teacher  present  to  assist  in 
the  study  of  the  aim  and  general  plan  of  the  lesson  previously  observed. 

At  least  two  visits  will  be  made  to  the  rural  schools  by  each  member 
of  the  class.  This  work  will  be  preceded  and  followed  by  a  careful  study 
of  the  rural  school.  In  the  practice  work  the  student-teacher  will  con- 
duct from  three  to  five  recitations.  This  will  be  done  in  part  in  the 
grades  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher  and  in  part  with  small 
classes  chosen  from  the  grades  and  taken  to  a  separate  room.  The 
student-teacher  will  sometimes  be  given  charge  of  a  high  school  e'jiss. 
Not  so  much  emphasis  will  be  placed  on  this  kind  of  practice  teach i ::~. 
however,  as  is  placed  on  grade  teaching. 

In  all  the  above  work  the  end  will  be  kept  in  view  from  the  b?,Tin- 
ning  that  the  student  is  being  prepared  to  teach  rural  school  work  and 
possibly  grade  work. 

*THE    PLAN    AT    YORK. 
Elizabeth   Hawxby. 

William  Hawley  Smith  says  that  the  pupils  entering  the  h'g'.i  school 
are  old  enough  to  know  what  they  want  to  be  when  they  are  men  and 
women.  While  there  are  many  exceptions  to  Mr.  Smith's  view,  most 
of  the  pupils  have  some  idea  as  to  whether  they  expect  to  teach  after 
finishing  the  high  school.  Since  there  is  so  much  ground  to  cover  and 
so  many  branches  to  be  taught  in  a  course  in  normal  training,  it  is  nec- 
essary that  some  of  the  subjects  be  given  in  the  first  and  second  years 
of  the  high  school. 

*Read  before  the  Superintendents    and  Principals'  Association,  Lincoln, 
October  24  ,  1907. 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS.  151 


The  plan  in  York  is  to  have  a  separate  course  in  normal  training, 
so  that  a  pupil  entering  school  may  elect  this  course,  just  as  a  Latin 
course  or  a  scientific  course  may  be  chosen.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the 
normal  training  course  are  placed  those  subjects  wbich  can  be  mastered 
most  easily  at  this  time.  Agriculture,  physiology,  bookkeeping  and  phys- 
ical geography  are  taught  during  the  first  and  second  years  of  the  high 
school  course. 

The  reviews  proper  are  placed  in  the  eleventh  rraclc.  As  fT  n.s  pos- 
sible the  semester  plan  is  adopted,  and  the  subjects  are  taught  by  the 
heads  of  the  departments.  The  history  teacher  devotes  two  semesters 
to  American  history  and  so  it  is  with  all  the  important  common  branches 
with  the  exception  of  grammar,  and  we  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to 
use  a  semester  in  this  case,  as  the  English  course  is  so  planned  tnai 
every  boy  or  girl  graduating  from  the  York  high  school  must  have  more 
than  a  semester's  work  in  English  grammar.  The  first  year,  or  prepara- 
tory students,  study  grammar  for  half  the  year.  Twelve  weeks'  grammar 
review  is  given  to  the  second  and  third  years'  classes. 

Since  the  semester  plan  is  used  for  the  heavier  branches,  the  minor 
subjects  are  very  conveniently  taught  by  one  teacher,  who  spends  a  se- 
mester on  geography  and  the  remainder  of  the  year  on  drawing,  spelling, 
writing,  etc.  The  object  of  the  work  done  in  the  junior  year  is  to  give 
the  jmpils.a  thorough  grounding  in  the  common  branches. 

A  year  in  the  twelfth  grde  is  devoted  to  pedagogy,  methods  and 
history  of  education.  Five  or  six  weeks  at  the  beginning  of  the  year 
nre  spent  on  psychology.  In  this  work  the  pupils  get  some  idea  as  to 
(he  development  of  the  faculties  of  the  mind.  They  learn  ways  in  which 
the  memory  may  be  cultivated,  the  imagination  developed  and  some- 
thing of  the  importance  of  training,  even  the  youngest  pupils,  in  the 
habits  of  attention  and  concentration  of  thought. 

The  methods  of  the  various  subjects  are  next  taught.  In  reading, 
fcr  example,  the  pupils  study  carefully  and  discuss  in  'the  class  the 
methods  given  in  the  two  texts  used  for  this  purpose — White's  Elements 
of  Pedagogy  and  Sherman  and  Reed's  Essentials  of  Teaching  Reading. 
A  number  of  references  are  assigned  to  them  to  read.  The  works  of  Dr. 
Clark  of  the  Chicago  University  are,  among  many  others,  of  excellent 
help  i:i  this  particular  branch.  Especial  attention  is  given  to  the  pri- 
mary methods,  because  if  young  teachers  fail  in  teaching  reading  it- 
will  be  largely  from  ignorance  in  managing  the  lower  grades.  We  all 
know  how  essential  it  is  that  a  pupil  be  started  properly.  The  seniors 
listen  to  a  careful  explanation  cf  the  methods  used  by  the  primary 
teachers  in  York  before  they  begin  observation  work.  A  number  of  the 
text  books  used  in  reading  are  taken  to  the  pedagogy  class  and  are  ex- 
amined. In  this  way  the  trainers  are  brought  into  closer  touch  with 
the  teachers  and  pupils  whom  they  are  to  observe.  Two  periods  a  week 
are  spent  in  observation.  The  pupils  go  to  the  grades  in  the  spirit 
to  get  all  the  good  they  can  while  there.  They  are  to  see  the  cause  and 


152  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


the  result  for  every  step  and  condition,  and  the  next  day  each  observer 
comes  to  class  with  his  notes  ready  to  make  a  report  of  what  he  has 
seen  and  heard.  At  the  end  of  the  year  he  will  have  in  this  note-book,  as 
well  as  in  his  head,  most  helpful  suggestions  and  devices  which  he  will 
appreciate  when  he  is  thrown  upon  his  own  responsibility  in  the  school 
room  the  next  September. 

The  most  gratifying  thing  in  the  normal  training  work  is  that  one 
finds  an  excellent  set  of  sincere  students.  They  are  willing  to  work. 
They  thoroughly  enjoy  the  observation  work  and  show  their  interest  by 
their  well-prepared  and  enthusiastic  reports. 

The"  cadet  work  planned  for  them  is  often  quite  strenuous  when  taken 
in  connection  with  their  school  work.  .Yet  they  are  delighted  when  the 
relative  of  some  grade  teacher  gets  married  and  calls  that  teacher  away 
from  her  schoolroom  for  a  few  hours  or  a  day,  for  this  means  that  one 
of  them  will  get  to  teach  in  her  place. 

The  trainers  not  only  do  the  work  of  the  absent  teachers,  but  each 
one  does  some  assistant  work  during  the  year.  Their  work  in  the 
common  branches  of  the  junior  year  has  amply  prepared  them  to  aid 
some  teacher  who  needs  help  in  correcting  papers.  Where  individual 
instruction  is  needed  and  the  teacher  has  not  the  time  to  bring  up  the 
weak  or  backward  pupil,  he  is  given  over  to  one  of  the  senior  cadets, 
who,  for  the  time  being,  becomes  a  Batavia  teacher  and  works  with  that 
pupil  until  he  is  able  to  do  the  work  as  well  as  the  average  in  the  class. 
During  the  busy  times  in  the  kindergarten  and  primary  rooms  the  teach- 
ers frequently  send  for  one  of  the  trainers  to  assist  in  the  busy  work, 
the  games  or  the  music.  In  this  way  the  seniors  get  the  best  kind  of 
practice,  as  they  are  guided  and  directed  by  experienced  teachers. 

There  are  other  features  a  teacher  should  master  before  he  goes 
into  the  schoolroom.  Two  are  a  knowledge  of  picture  study,  and  the 
ability  to  tell  stories  well.  So  a  little  time  is  devoted  in  the  senior  year 
to  the  study  of  art  with  a  view  to  enable  seniors  to  use  pictures  skill- 
fully in  the  teaching  of  language,  geography  or  history.  Also  for  an 
aesthetic  reason  they  study  pictures — to  help  them  to  enjoy  the  beauti- 
ful and  to  make  them  desire  to  know  more  about  the  great  masters  of  art. 
What  they  really  enjoy  and  appreciate  themselves  they  will  wish  to  give 
to  others. 

The  story 4elling  plan  is  this:  Pupils  are  assigned  stories  from 
the  books  of  Kate  Douglas  Wiggins,  Thompson  Seton,  or  other  good  writ- 
ers. These  stories  they  learn  to  tell  well  by  practicing  at  home  on  their 
little  brothers  and  sisters.  On  certain  days  the  stories  are  told  to  the 
pedagogy  class,  the  students  for  the  time  being  imagine  themselves 
first  grade  or  sixth  grade  pupils  as  the  story  may  demand.  This  class 
is  the  work  shop  or  the  training  room,  so  the  criticisms  are  given  here. 
Later  the  pupils  are  granted  the  privilege  of  telling  these  stories  to  the 
grade  children.  They  need  no  coaxing  for  this  work.  In  fact,  they  seem 
to  think  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  "honors  thrust  upon  them."  Last  year 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  153 


one  of  our  largest  boys  in  the  training  class  told  one  of  his  stories  in  a 
primary  room  and  he  held  the  attention  of  the  little  ones  so  well  and 
told  the  story  with  so  much  animation  that  the  grade  teacher  said  she 
felt  he  deserved  first  place  among  all  the  cadets  who  came  to  her  room 
that  year.  The  boy  who  is  able  to  do  this  can  certainly  make  things 
interesting  for  the  little  beginners  in  a  country  school.  Frequently  the 
trainers  find  these  stories  of  benefit  to  them  while  teaching  in  the  place 
of  an  absent  teacher.  After  the  plan  of  work  the  teacher  has  left  has 
been  completed,  there  may  be  a  few  minutes  remaining  before  time  for 
dismissal.  The  substitute  is  not  at  sea  to  know  how  to  use  the  time, 
for  he  can  tell  one  of  his  stories.  If  he  chooses  to  tell  Edward  Everett 
Hale's  "The  Man  Without  a  Country"  to  a  seventh  or  eighth  grade  class 
he  will  surely  sow  seeds  of  patriotism  in  the  heart  of  some  boy.  If  he 
tells  well  to  a  primary  grade  Kate  Douglas  Wiggins'  "Mrs.  Chincilla,"  the 
worst  boy  in  school  will  not  throw  a  stone  at  a  cat  for  at  least  a  week. 

A  teacher  who  is  a  graduate  of  a  good  school  rarely  ever  fails  be- 
cause he  has  not  book-knowledge  enough.  It  is  because  of  ignorance 
along  other  lines;  lack  of  energy,  no  tact;  originality  wanting;  so  we 
strive  to  make  the  trainers  feel  that  back  of  all  their  school  work  is  the 
individuality.  A  device  which  they  have  planned  themselves,  which 
suits  the  occasion  and  the  demands  of  their  class,  is  better  than  one 
learned  from  a  book. 

Yet  young  teachers  are  often  ignorant  as  to  where  to  find  the  most 
helpful  things.  They  are  willing  to  work  and  would  read  the  good 
thoughts  of  this  writer,  or  that,  if  they  only  knew  where  to  get  them.  So 
a  list  of  the  best  magazines  and  school  papers  are  given  them  with  the 
publishing  company.  Also  lists  of  the  books  that  will  aid  picture  study, 
methods,  story-telling  and  morning  exercises.  As  the  teacher  is  usually 
expected  to  choose  the  new  text  books,  it  is  well  for  the  seniors  to  know 
what  books  are  the  best  to  use  in  the  various  subjects. 

These  things  on  the  aside  are  brought  in  through  lectures  given  by 
different  persons.  At  the  close  of  the  year,  the  pedagogy 
students  know  how  to  apply  for  a  school;  how  to  approach  the  school 
board;  how  to  prepare  for  the  first  day  of  school,  and  what  to  do  on  that 
day;  they  have  some  good  ideas  as  to  the  care  of  the  school  grounds, 
and  the  decoration  and  care  of  the  schoolroom.  We  hope  to  make  this 
lecture  course  one  of  the  beneficial  things  in  the  normal  training  work. 
You  can  help  us  out  along  this  line.  When  you  come  to  York,  meander 
down  the  halls  of  the  high  school  and  you  will  be  "grabbed"'  and  taken 
into  the  pedagogy  class  to  talk  to  those  seniors. 


154  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


*WHAT   HOLDREGE    IS   DOING. 

C.  W.  McMichael. 

What  is  Holdrege  doing?  Holdrege  is  in  line  on  the  question  of 
normal  training  as  she  is  in  every  other  advance  movement,  not  only 
in  educational  lines,  but  also  in  commercial  and  industrial  pursuits.  That 
Holdrege  has  the  largest  normal  training  class  in  the  state,  is  a  boast 
that  we  make  with  all  humility,  yet  with  a  feeling  that  it'  is  no  small 
thing  to  be  first  in  Nebraska  in  anything,  even  if  only  in  numbers.  This 
result  was  not  attained  simply  for  the  asking  but  only  by  the  hardest 
kind  of  work.  What  were  our  difficulties?  Lack  of  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, an  absence  of  normal  training  sentiment,  the  objection  that  a  former 
trial  at  normal  training  was  not  a  complete  success,  the  prevailing  senti- 
ment among  a  certain  class  of  pupils,  who  looked  upon  the  teaching 
profession  as  a  joke — an  occupation  to  be  avoided,  or  at  least  taken  up 
only  as  a  last  resort.  These  and  other  obstacles  impeded  our  progress 
but  now  things  are  coming  our  way. 

Our  plan  of  work,  I  suppose,  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of 
other  towns,  since  we  have  followed  as  far  as  local  conditions  would 
permit  the  outline  given  in  "Normal  Training  in  High  Schools." 

The  Holdrege  course  of  study  provides  for  physiology,  civics  and 
bookkeeping  in  the  ninth  grade;  agriculture  in  the  tenth;  United  States 
history  in  the  second  semester  of  the  eleventh,  and  reviews  throughout 
the  year  and  professional  training  during  the  second  semester  of  the 
twelfth  grade.  All  these  subjects  are  elective  except  reviews.  All  sen- 
iors are  required  to  take  reviews  because  we  feel  that  the  boy  or  girl 
who  goes  out  from  a  high  school  weak  in  the  common  branches  is  poorly 
equipped  for  the  duties  of  life.  Besides  he  is  a  poor  recommendation 
for  the  teachers  and  the  school  since  the  ordinary  business  man  judges 
the -school  by  what  its  graduates  know  of  spelling,  writing,  geography 
and  arithmetic. 

The  seniors  are  taking  all  the  required  subjects  this^year  which 
makes  their  work  extra  difficult.  They  have  agriculture  and  reviews 
this  semester,  and  will  take  reviews,  history  and  professional  training 
the  second  half  year. 

Thus,  briefly,  I  have  sketched  our  plan,  in  general.  I  shall  not  go  into 
detail  and  tell  what  we  are  doing  in  each  branch  but  will  let  a  few  ideas 
on  our  work  in  agriculture  give  a  line  on  what  we  are  doing  in  other 
things. 

First  let  me  say  that  one-third  of  our  class  is  boys.  This  fact  adds 
interest,  breadth,  and  the  business  element  to  our  study. 

We  use  as  texts  Bessey's  Agriculture,  Burkett's  Agriculture  for  Be- 
ginners, and  Goff  and  Mayne's  book.  In  addition  to  these  we  have 
farmers'  bulletins,  reports  of  the  department  of  agriculture  for  several 


*Read  before  the  Superintendents    and  Principals'  Association,  Lincoln, 
October  24,  1907. 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS.  15 


years  past,  daily  weather  maps,  books  on  various  subjects,  newspaper 
clippings,  pamphlets  put  out  by  fine  stock  breeders  and  fanciers,  indeed 
we  utilize  everything  we  can  find  that  bears  upon  agriculture  in  any  of 
its  phases. 

The  subjects  we  have  studied  are  not  exactly  the  ones  suggested  in 
the  outline  but  the  ones  we  found  the  most  interesting  and  in  our  opinion 
the  most  practical  and  helpful  for  the  majority  of  the  class  who  do  not 
expect  to  be  specialists.  We  take  up  soil,  its  formation,  texture,  con- 
stituents, improvement,  the  conservation  of  moisture;  stockraising,  judg- 
ing of  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  and  chickens  by  the  use  of  score  cards;  the 
planning  of  convenient  and  appropriate  houses  for  stock,  also  the  planning 
and  equipping  of  dwellings  for  farmers;  butter  making,  stock  feeding  and 
breeding;  crops  suitable  for  Nebraska,  crop  pests  and  diseases,  garden- 
ing, and  fruit  raising. 

Our  method  is  to  study  the  texts  and  the  other  sources  of  informa- 
tion, then  to  make  an  experimental  test,  not  necessarily  in  the  laboratory 
but  at  home,  at  the  neighboring  dairy  farm,  or  wherever  the  experi- 
ment is  possible.  We  aim  to  make  our  work  practical  and  to  base  it 
on  common  sense,  not  theoretical  and  technical. 

Our  purpose  in  this,  as  in  all  other  work,  is  to  make  the  pupil  love 
the  subject;  to  lead  him  to  investigate  things  for  himself  and  not  to 
rush  in  blindly  until  he  knows  what  he  is  doing,  and  to  give  him  as 
Prof.  Davisson  says,  "a  passion  for  truth."  We  hardly  expect  in  so  short 
a  time  to  equip  our  pupils  as  full-fledged  farmers  or  to  compare  with 
the  normal  schools  or  university  in  fitting  them  as  teachers.  We  do 
hope,  however,  to  give  them  a  few  methods,  some  hints  on  the  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  and  some  ideas  as  to  how  good  teachers  perform. 
We  shall  consider  our  time  and  effort  well  spent  if  we  can  firmly  fix  in 
their  minds  the  importance  of  the  work  of  a  teacher,  the  great  responsi- 
bility connected  with  it,  the  absolute  necessity  of  thoughtful,  conscien- 
tious, and  thorough  preparation,  and  the  desire  to  go  to  the  bottom  of 
whatever  is  undertaken.  Holdrege  does  not  hesitate  to  vouch  for  the 
success  of  any  pupil  provided  with  this  equipment. 
*NORTH  PLATTE  IN  LINE. 
Wilson  Tout. 

Yes,  North  Platte  is  in  line  and  I  am  here  today  to  find  out  whether 
we  are  with  the  leaders  of  the  van  or  are  tailenders.  I  am  here  to  learn 
what  is  being  done  in  the  other  high  schools  of  the  state  in  normal  train- 
ing, so  that  we  may  do  the  best  vvork  possible.  Normal  training  in  our 
school  has  many  advantages — the  people  are  willing  for  it,  the  board 
is  eager  for  it,  the  teachers  are  enthusiastic  over  it  and  the  students 
are  pleased  with  it;  so  it  only  remains  for  those  in  control  to  inaugurate 
and  carry  out  the  course,  being  limited  only  by  their  knowledge  of  the 


*Read  before  the   Superintendents   and  Principles'  Association,  Lincoln, 
October  24,  1907. 


NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


matter  and  their  natural  endowments.  Superintendent  Goss  and  myselt 
have  studied  the  law  and  have  read  every  bit  of  information  supplied 
by  the  state  department  and  have  conferred  and  conferred,  and  the 
result  is  the  normal  course,  as  1  shall  present  it.  I  shall  mention  only 
those  subjects  required  by  the  law  for  this  course. 

American  History  is  in  the  regular  course  and  is  carried  during 
the  first  semester  of  the  twelfth  grade.  The  work  is  largely  academic 
in  character  and  the  teacher  is  a  University  graduate,  who  has  special- 
ized in  history.  Source  and  reference  work  about  share  evenly  with 
text-book. 

Agriculture  is  a  new  subject  in  the  North  Platte  high  school  and  is 
carried  during  the  first  semester  of  the  eleventh  grade.  Bailey's  most 
excellent  text  is  followed  and  this  is  supplmented  by  a  great  deal  of 
source  and  reference  work  from  a  constantly  growing  library.  A  few 
standard  reference  works  in  agriculture  were  purchased.  Then  we  have 
practically  all  of  the  yearbooks  of  the  department  of  agriculture  and  the 
annual  reports  of  the  state  agricultural  society.  Over  100  bulletins, 
circulars  and  pamphlets  from  the  U.  S.  department  of  agriculture  and  the 
Nebraska  experiment  station  have  been  catalogued  and  placed  on  the 
reference  shelves.  *  And  this  library  has  had  to  be  collected  during  the 
last  six  weeks.  The  pupils  of  the  class  have  been  helpful  in  securing 
and  arranging  this  library.  We  have  done  practically  nothing  in  lab- 
oratory work,  because  we  can  secure  as  good  results  in  another  way. 
The  substation  of  the  Nebraska  experiment  station  is  located  about  three 
miles  from  our  city.  Here  extensive  experiments  have  been  and  are 
being  carried  on.  The  director  and  his  assistants  have  very*  kindly 
placed  their  work  and  experiments  at  our  disposal.  Frequent  visits  have 
been  made  to  the  farm  of  nearly  1000  acres  and  in  charge  of  one  of  the 
men  of  the  farm,  everything  has  been  explained  to  the  class.  Note  books 
are  used  and  the  notes  written  out  and  recorded.  Experiments  on  a 
vast  scale  in  soil  temperature,  soil  moisture,  dry  farming,  crop  rotation, 
summer  fallowing,  etc.,  are  explained  on  the  ground  and  the  actual  work 
is  seen.  The  feeding  experiment  will  be  studied,  seed  selection  and 
testing  will  be  observed  and  we  feel  that  this  is  more  practical  than 
indoor  laboratory  work.  In  this  we  are  more  fortunate  than  many  other 
places.  The  assistant  who  took  us  thru  their  soil  laboratories  and  seed 
testing  room  and  explained  and  demonstrated  the  work  is  now  in  Wash- 
ington working  out  the  records  for  the  department  of  agriculture.  He 
will  later  return  to  Lincoln  and  instruct  in  the  winter  term  of  the 
school  of  agriculture.  The  pupils  are  so  interested  that  they  want  to 
continue  the  course  thruout  the  year. 

Pedagogy  or  Professional  Training  will  be  taken  up  during  the  second 
semester  of  the  twelfth  grade.  Superintendent  Goss  has  arranged  for 
much  practice  and  observation  work,  but  the  details  have  not  yet  been 
finally  settled  and  so  I  do  not  feel  at  liberty  to  discuss  them.  The  teacher 
in  charge  has  had  ten  years  experience  in  country,  village  and  ciiv 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  157 


schools.  But  the  hard  work  seems  to  center  around  the  class  in  normal 
reviews.  This  class  will  carry  nine  weeks  each  in  arithmetic,  grammar, 
geography  and  reading.  I  will  speak  briefly  of  the  one  now  in  progress. 
a  class  of  eighteen  boys  and  girls  from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades 
We  started  this  subject  first  because  we  had  a  supply  of  high  school 
arithmetics  on  hand.  These  we  attempted  to  use.  but  found  that  the 
class  time  was  taken  up  with  explanations  of  difficult  problems  and  nc 
time  was  remaining  for  the  study  of  methods  and  principles.  The  class 
was  fairly  well  prepared,  indeed  I  may  say  that  the  pupils,  while  not 
above  the  average  in  intelligence,  were  well  grounded  in  arithmetic 
The  high  school  books  were  soon  discarded  and  we  substituted  a  book 
used  in  the  grades.  We  found  that  there  was  enough  work  in  these 
books  to  give  practice  in  solution  and  method  at  the  same  time.  Prob 
lems  are  assigned  after  the  principles  have  been  dicussed  and  the  solu- 
tions are  handed  in  at  the  next  recitation.  The  papers  are  graded  and, 
returned.  In  grading  papers  we  give  credit  for  each  example  correctly 
solved  but  no  credit  is  given  unless  all  of  the  examples  have  been 
worked.  The  pupils  are  taught  that  the  answer  is  the  objective  point- 
It  must  be  correct  or  it  is  of  no  value.  Oral  analysis  is  given  part  of 
tue  time  as  well  as  written  analysis  and  blackboard  demonstration. 
The  pupils  are  taught  to  give  graphic  representations  of  problems  that 
require  or  allow  of  such  demonstration.  Class  discussions  or  such  sub- 
jects as  "How  to  explain  the  Roman  Notation,"  "What  is  a,  Fraction," 
etc.,  are  held.  I  will  quote  from  my  note  book  the  regular  class  work 
for  one  week. 

Monday — Class  handed  in  solutions  of  problems;  on  square  rcot  and 
applications  to  the  right  angle  triangle.  Instructor  gave  a  talk  on  "What 
to  teach  and  what  not  to  teach  in  arithmetic,"  the  class  taking  notes. 

Tuesday— Class  hands  in  the  notes  on  the  talk  of  the  day  before. 
The  notes  have  been  amplified  and  extended  and  several  pupils  read 
them  before  the  class.  Discussion  followed,  illustrated  by  copies  of 
old  text  bookw,  compared  with  modern  ones.  Problems  assigned  in  pro- 
portion after  some  preliminary  explanations. 

Wednesday— Demonstration,  by  first  grade  teacher,  of  primary  num- 
ber work.  Class  take  notes.  Class  hands  in  solutions  of  problems 
assigned  the  day  berore. 

Thursday— Round  table  discussion  on  primary  arithmetic.  Some  of 
the  extended  note»  are  read  and  all  are  handed  in.  Preliminary  ex 
planations  on  graphic  representations  of  examples  in  mensuration  and 
problems  are  assigned. 

Friday — Recitation  period  spent  in  study  of  cancellation  and  prob- 
lems assigned.  Solutions  of  problems  as-signed  the  day  before  are  handed 
in. 

In  this  way  we  are  attempting  to  give  a  review  of  the  subject  matter 
and  to  get  the  pupil  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  relation  of  numbers 
while  at  the  same  time  giving  him  an  idea  how  to  teach  it. 


158  NORMAL  TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


It  is  intended  to  follow  much  the  same  plan  in  the  other  branches. 
All  of  the  work  has  been  arranged  without  very  much  previous  knolwedge 
of  what  the  result  will  be  and  is  open  to  modification  upon  further  en- 
lightenment. 

*NORMAL   TRAINING— READING. 
Fred  M.  Hunter,  Ashland. 

The  normal  class  in  reading  at  Ashland  occupies  the  second  nine 
weeks  of  the  first  semester.  The  class  consists  of  both  eleventh  and 
twelfth  grade  students. 

The  course  attempts  to  accomplish  mainly  these  objects:  (I)  To 
impress  upon  prospective  teachers  as  the  main  objects  of  teaching 
reading:  (a)  The  cultivation  of  a  taste  for  and  ability  to  appreciate 
good  literature,  and  (b)  The  cultivation  in  the  pupil  of  the  ability  to 
express  thought  either  original  or  acquired  in  a  natural  and  effective 
way. 

,2.  To  give  the  prospective  teacher:  (a)  a  knowledge  of  the  me- 
chanics of  readings,  (b)  a  knowledge  of  the  best  methods  of  teaching 
reading,  and  (c)  practice  sufficient  to  ground  them  well  in  these  methods. 
To  accomplish  these  objects  the  academic  study  of  Sherman  and  Reed's 
^'Essentials"  is  used  together  with  observation  work  in  all  grades  from 
I  to  VIII. 

The  class  begins  with  a  study  of  the  "Mechanics  of  Reading"  from 
"The  Essentials"  with  that  text  in  the  hands  of  the  members  of  the 
class.  During  the  study  of  this  division  of  the  text  and  of  "Types  and 
Effects,"  the  class  does  observation  work  in  grades  VI,  VII,  VIII,  averag- 
ing one  period  of  observation,  week  per  week. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  "Primary  Reading"  in  the  text, 
the  class  visits  grades  I,  II  and  III.  In  these  grades  the  Ward  Rational 
Method  of  teaching  reading  is  used  and  the  members  of  the  class  are 
required  to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  it. 

The  observation  work  averages  about  one  period  per  week  during 
the  nine  weeks.  At  the  regular  class  recitation  period  before  each  visit 
the  instructor  gives  an  outline  of  four  or  five  questions  for  the  purpose 
of  specifically  directing  the  observation  of  the  students  in  the  most 
effective  way.  The  students  keep  a  note  book  of  their  observations  and 
conclusions  from  them.  During  the  "Conference  and  Study"  period, 
from  3:30  to  4:00,  which  is  uniform  throughout  the  Ashland  schools,  the 
reading  class  meets  with  the  teacher  of  the  grade  visited  and  with  the 
superintendent  and  discuss  the  recitation  observed  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  points  assigned  for  observation.  The  notes  of  the  students, 
which  until  the  conference  period  were  incomplete  and  only  roughly 
formulated,  are  completed  and  a  full  report  of  each  member  is  made  in 
the  next  succeeding  recitation  period.  The  note  books  are  handed  in 
three  times  during  the  course,  corrected  in  red  ink  and  returned  for 
final  correction  by  students. 


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ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS.  159 


The  practice  work  in  teaching  is  facilitated  by  the  board  of  educa- 
tion having  made  the  members  of  the  normal  training  class  the  regular 
supply  teachers  for  the  grades.  In  addition  to  this  practice  work  each 
member  of  the  class  is  required  to  conduct  one  recitation  in  the  Ward 
method  of  teaching  primary  reading  and  one  recitation  of  advanced 
reading  with  the  other  members  of  the  normal  reading  class  as  pupils. 
In  teaching  primary  reading  the  members  of  the  class  are  required  to 
assign  and  present  the  lesson  in  perclsely  the  same  manner  required 
In  actual  work  in  the  Ashland  grades.  The  students  present  phonograms 
and  sound,  blend  as  one  class  recitation  and  a  reading  lesson  from  the 
first  or  second  reader  as  a  distinct  recitation.  In  preparation  for  this 
practice  work  the  pupils  are  given  Gordon  Plan  blanks,  such  as  are  used 
In  the  Ashland  grades,  and  are  required  to  outline  one  week's  work  in 
advance  for  the  grade  in  whose  work  the  presentation  is  to  be  given. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  course  a  course  of  study  with  syllabuses  for 
reading  in  all  grades  in  the  Ashland  schools,  is  placed  in  the  hands  of 
each  pupil.  With  each  practice  recitation  and  each  visit  the  pupils  are 
required  to  give  an  outline  of  the  complete  reading  work  for  each  grade 
visited,  or  the  work  of  which  is  to  be  presented  as  practice  work.  By 
this  means  the  pupils  are  made  familiar  with  good  texts,  both  basal  and 
supplementary;  they  are  taught  systematic  gradation  of  work,  and  the 
adaptation  of  types  of  literature  to  various  grades.  In  this  connection  and 
with  the  text  a  glance  is  taken  at  the  various  American  authors  of 
repute  with  the  best  writings.  Only  a  short  time  is  given  for  this  except 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  syllabusses  for  the  various  grades, 
visitation,  etc. 

In  a  word  the  Ashland  normal  training  class  in  reading  is  attempting 
to  acquire  a  grasp  of  the  importance  and  real  aims  in  teaching  reading, 
and  to  perfect  the  ability  to  accomplish  these  aims  in  the  fullest  way 
by  all  the  actual  observation  and  experience  possible  to  high  school 
students  in  a  small  town. 

*NORMAL    TRAINING— GRAMMAR. 
H.  C.  Pilley,  Albion. 

This  is  as  much  a  discussion  of  what  we  expect  to  do  as  of  what  we 
have  already  done,  for  our  course  in  grammar  will  come  the  first  Lalf 
of  the  second  semester.  It  has  been  our  custom,  however,  to  give  a  re- 
view in  grammar,  as  well  as  of  some  of  the  other  common  branches, 
during  the  senior  >ear. 

We  use  Hoenshel's  advanced  grammar,  the  same  text  that  we  ha^e 
in  the  grades  and  the  one  that  those  who  teach  are  are  most  apt  to  meet 
in  the  rural  schools  of  this  county.  Last  year  we  began  with  the  work 
for  the  eighth  grade,  but  correlated  with  that  the  work  which  the  author 
designates  for  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades.  We  had  at  hand  several 
good  grammars  and  disputed  points  were  usually  left  to  be  looked  up 
in  these  as  a  part  of  the  next  day's  assignment. 


•"Prepared  especially  for  this  bulletin. 


160  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


I  found  that  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  Latin  grammar  was  a  decided 
advantage,  especu'ly  in  the  analysis  of  sentences.  They  made  distinc- 
tions readily  which  those  pupils  who  have  had  only  English  grammar 
are  apt  to  find  difficult. 

As  a  daily  exercise  for  several  weeks,  the  pupils  were  required  to 
bring  in  lists  of  grammatical  errors  which  had  been  made  in  the  school 
room,  and  some  other  student  was  always  required  to  correct  each  sen- 
tence read,  and  give  the  technical  reason  for  his  correction.  They  be- 
came quick  to  detect  errors,  and  I  believe  that  those  who  are  now  teach- 
ing will  teach  something  of  the  art  of  English  grammar  as  well  as  the 
science. 

We  spent  a  few  days  in  writing  business  letters  and  ended  the  work 
with  the  state  examination  questions  for  the  preceding  month. 

This  year  I  am  planning  to  have  the  normal  training  students  visit 
the  grammar  classes  of  all  the  grade  teachers,  and  to  bring  to  our  class 
discussions  a  little  more  of  the  pedagogical  side  of  the  subject. 

Last  year  all  members  of  the  class  who  afterward  took  the   state 

examination  passed  creditably,  and  this  included  seme  of  the  weakest 

as  well  as  some  of  the  strongest  members.     We  now  hope  to  add  to 

knowledge  of  subject  matter,  a  knowledge  of  how  to  present  the  subject. 

*NORMAL    TRAINING— GEOGRAPHY. 

Maude  Emerson,  Tecumseh. 

In  geography  we  follow  the  general  outline  as  suggested  in  the  Out- 
line of  Normal  Training  in  the  High  School. 

First,  we  begin  with  a  general  review  of  geography,  as  given  in  an 
advanced  tent,  special  attention  being  given  to  the  United  States.  Then 
the  continents  are  taken  up  and  studied  separately,  followed  by  com- 
parative work  in  all  possible  lines. 

The  geography  of  Nebraska  follows,  the  pupils  obtaining  'informa- 
from  all  available  sources,  using  Dr.  Condra's  Geography  of  Nebraska 
as  a  reference  book.  Next  follows  the  geography  of  the  home  region, 
the  information  to  be  obtained  chiefly  by  observation. 

The  remaining  time  is  spent,  usually,  in  map  drawing. 

Recitations  are  sometimes  conducted  simply  by  topic,  sometimes 
by  general  discussion. 

The  class  seems  to  show  more  interest  and  get  more  from  the  recita- 
tion when  general  discussion  is  allowed.  Special  stress  is  laid  on  the 
method  of  teaching.  We  take  up  a  subject  as  "oasis"  or  "desert"  and 
the  pupils  tell  how  they  would  present  the  topic  to  a  class  having  no 
knowledge  of  the  subject. 

-NORMAL   TRAINING— AGRICULTURE. 
W.  T.   Stockdale,  Wisner. 

Briefly  stated,  the  subject  is  handled  in  the  Wisner  high  school  as 
follows:  The  subject  is  elective  for  one  semester  in  the  eleventh  and 


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ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  161 


twelfth  grades.  We  give  it  three  single  and  two  double  'periods  per 
week.  The  time  is  divided  about  equally  between  class  recitation  and 
laboratory  work,  and  use  as  our  guide  the  outline  in  the  normal  training 
bulletin.  We  have  two  full  sets  of  texts,  Stevens,  Burkett  and  Hill;  and 
Bessey,  Bruner,  and  Swezey,  also  copies  of  Goff  &  Mayne,  Bailey,  Kern, 
Severs,  King's  "Soil,"  Wing's  "Milk  and  Its  Products,"  and  the  Yearbooks 
from  the  U.  S.  agriculture  department,  together  with  a  good  collection 
of  bulletins;  from  both  the  U.  S.  agricultural  experiment'  station  of  Ne- 
braska and  from  the  U.  S.  department  of  agriculture  at  Washington,  D. 
C.  Several  farm  papers  are  also  used,  besides  books  on  examining  and 
grading  grains,  judging  stock,  planning  the  grounds,  gardening,  etc. 

The  subject  is  taken  up  largely  by  topics,  the  different  divisions  being 
assigned  "to  members  of  the  class  to  be  reported  upon  orally  at  a  future 
recitation.  The  student  thus  reporting  is  really  the  instructor  for  his 
division  of  the  subject  and  is  so  considered  both  by  the  class  and  by 
himself.  To  illustrate:  We  will  suppose  our  subject  to  be  "Butter  Mak- 
ing." Student  No.  1  reports  on  "The  care  of  the  cow,"  No.  2  on  "Milk 
utensils  and  their  care,"  No.  3  OD  "Handling  the  milk  and  separating  the 
cream,"  No.  4  on  "Ripening  the  oream,"  No.  5  on  "Churning  and  care 
of  the  butter."  Five  to  ten  minutes,  occasionally  longer,  time  is  required 
for  each  pupil  to  report.  These  reports  are  discussed,  enlarged  upon, 
doubtful  points  cleared  up,  and  conclusions  drawn. 

In  brief,  our  laboratory  work  consists  of  examining  and  scoring  live 
stock  and  grains,  testing  milk  and  cream  by  the  use  of  the  Babcock 
tester  and  from  the  result  estimate  the  relative  value  of  different  cows, 
taking  into  consideration  the  amount  of  milk  given,  cost  of  feed,  etc.; 
microscopic  examination  of  soils,  water  movement  in  soils,  plant  food 
in  soils;  examination  of  seeds  as  to  composition,  manner  of  growth, 
germination,  vitality,  testing,  identifying,  care  of,  distribution  and  selec- 
tion. 

Preparing  window  frames,  hotbed,  cold  frame,  plans  'for  the  home  and 
school  grounds.  Each  student  has  a  garden  and  it  is  handled  from  three 
different  standpoints— the  commercial,  the  experimental,  and-  the  aesthet- 
ic. 

Plant  propagation,  pruning  and  training,  identifying  trees  and  shrubs. 
Preparation  and  application  of  insecticides  and  fungicides. 
*NORMAL    TRAINING— AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

Maria  P.  Upson,  Beatrice. 

In  the  Beatrice  high  school  the  plan  used  for  the  preparation  of  the 
lessons  in  American  history  is  to  require  an  outline  of  the  topics  to  be 
brought  to  the  class  at  the  recitation  period.  The  purpose  of  this  is 
to  train  the  pupil  to  get  clear  ideas  from  the  printed  page.  Having  the 
outlines  placed  upon  the  board,  and  having  them  'discussed  in  the  class 
assist  pupils  who  do  not  grasp  the  central  thought  easily  and  who  do 

not  see  the  relative  importance  of  statements. ^ 

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162  NORMAL  TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


Some  readings  with  notes  upon  such  material  as  Caldwell's  Source 
Book,  and  Hart's  Source  Book  are  required. 

Encyclopedia  readings  upon  events  and  persons  not  treated  of  suf- 
ficiently in  the  text  book  are  made. 

Note  books  are  handed  in  for  inspection. 

A  written  paper  from  an  outline  is  required  each  semester.  "The 
Growth  of  Union  among  the  Colonies,"  is  the  subject  of  the  paper  for 
the  first  semester  of  this  year. 

*NORMAL    TRAINING— UNITED    STATES    HISTORY. 
Ina  B.  Robinson,  Blair. 

The  pupils  in  the  normal  training  class  in  the  Blair  high  school  who 
will  finish  the  course  this  year  are  taking  the  regular  twelfth  grade 
United  States  history.  This  gives-  a  splendid  opportunity  for  a  complete 
review  of  the  subject,  especially  since  the  plan  here  is  to  study  up  to 
the  constitutional  period,  then  spend  some  time  on  civil  government, 
and  after  that  the  remainder  of  the  year  on  the  last  period  of  the  history. 

In  addition  to  this  regular  course,  during  the  entire  year  two  periods 
a  week  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes  each  will  be  given  for  the  special 
work  of  training  teachers  of  history.  The  pupils  in  the  regular  class 
are  dismissed  ten  minutes  before  the  bell  rings  and  the  training  class 
remains  about  fifteen  minutes  after  the .  time  for  closing  the  recita- 
tion. This  is  the  last  period  in  the  afternoon,  so  is  easily  arranged. 

The  first  periods  of  the  year  were  given  to  some  talks  on  the  im- 
portance of  the  subject,  and  to  arousing  an  interest  in  the  work  of  the 
teacher. 

The  state  superintendent's  report  is  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  lessons 
and  it  is  the  intention  to  drill  on  all  the  points  given  in  that  outline. 
The  pupils  are  more  interested  in  the  concrete  than  the  abstract  so  one 
of  the  first  series  of  lessons  was  given,  as  follows:  Tbe  class  was 
divided  into  eight  sections,  one  representing  each  grade.  A  list  of  ques- 
tions was  given,  as,  In  the  grade  you  represent  find  out  exactly  how 
much  history  is  taught;  what  text-book,  if  any,  is  used;  what  kind  of 
supplementary  reading  is  required;  what  reference  books  are  available 
for  the  pupils,  etc.  From  the  reports  an  outline  in  full  was  made  and 
each  pupil  copied  this  into  a  note  book  for  future  reference.  This  work 
occupied  several  periods. 

It  is  the  aim  to  have  each  grade  visited  by  the  different  pupils  as 
many  times  as  practicable  during  the  year.  A  list  of  questions  will  be 
given  and  each  member  of  the  training  class  will  be  required  to  make 
a  complete  report  on  them,  for  example:  How  much  work  was  covered 
in  the  period;  what  was  the  method  of  conducting  the  recitation;  had  an 
outline  been  given  by  the  teacher  or  made  by  the  pupil;  how  was  the 
assignment  made  for  the  following  day;  were  there  any  special  devices 
used  for  arousing  interest,  etc.?  It  is  the  intention  to  have  the  class 


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ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  163 


visit  rural  schools  also  and  make  similar  reports.  These  are  to  he  care- 
fully considered  and  the  results  of  the  investigations  kept  in  note-books. 

In  this  way  as  far  as  possible  a  series  of  lessons  will  be  given  on 
the  different  points  suggested  in  the  state  superintendent's  outline. 

There  are  many  lessons  that  must  be  somewhat  abstract  but  the 
practical  work  keeps  the  class  enthusiastic. 

"NORMAL   TRAINING— PEDAGOGY. 

A.  L.  Caviness,  Fairbury. 
Here  in  brief  is  what  we  do  in  Fairbury. 

I.  Study  carefully  and  critically  the  text  of  pedagogy. 

II.  Visit   schools — in   city   under  the   direction  of  the   city   superin- 
tendent; in  the  country  under  the  direction  of  the  county  superintendent. 

III.  Practice  as  supply  teachers  in  grades  where  the  regular  teacher 
is  absent. 

THE  TEXT-BOOK— In  the  study  of  the  text  we  use  methods  familiar 
in  other  subjects,  but  constant  advantage  is  taken  of  the  interest  in  the 
new  point  of  view — consideration  of  the  school  from  the  standpoint  of 
teaching  instead  of  being  taught.  Comparison  of  these  viewpoints  we 
find  most  fascinating  to  the  student-teacher  and  it  renders  freedom  of 
discussion  easy  and  natural.  We  allow  use  of  pupil's  experience  under 
former  teachers  for  illustration  so  long  as  it  deals  with  the  method  of 
instruction  and  not  the  personality  of  the  teacher  under  discussion.  We 
encourage  questions  dealing  with  the  HOW,  the  WHY,  and  the  RESULT. 
We  require  reference  reading  in  a  number  of  works  on  pedagogy. 

VISITATION.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  to  have  members  of 
the  training  class  visit  schools  where  good  teachers  are  doing  strong 
work.  On  her  regular  trips  to  the  country  the  county  superintendent 
takes  two  or  three  of  the  class  with  her,  leaving  them  perhaps  at  one 
school  while  she  visits  another  that  may  need  attention.  In  the  city 
not  more  than  one  room  is  visited  in  a  given  day  by  a  part  of  the  class 
and  usually  to  observe  the  work  of  a  particular  recitation. 

Each  one  visiting  makes  notes  and  makes  out  a  report  to  the  training 
class  discussion.  These  reports  deal  with  (1)  the  general  condition  of 
the  grounds  and  buildings;  (2)  the  pupils  and  their  interest  in  the  day's 
work;  and  (3)  the  teacher's  ability  to  govern,  her  methods  of  instruction, 
and  her  general  characteristics.  Great  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  teacher 
as  the  center  of  interest  and  the  chief  factor  of  the  school  work. 

In  reports  to  the  class  and  in  the  general  disctfssion  the  name  of 
the  teacher  visited  or  criticised  is  not  mentioned,  the  purpose  being  to 
discuss  the  work  of  teaching  and  not  the  individual  teacher.  Each  mem- 
ber of  the  class  is  encouraged  to  make  comparisons  between  the  actual 
work  reported  and  the  principles  developed  in  the  study  of  the  text. 

We  give  a  few  typical  questions  to  be  kept  in  mind  while  visiting: 
Government— (1)  Is  good  attention  secured  and  held?  (2)  Is  the  teacher's 


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164  NORMAL,   TRAINING    IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


manner  decided  and  enthusiastic?  (3)  Are  the  pupils  interested?  Are 
those  at  seats  quiet  and  diligent?  Teaching— (1)  Are  important  points 
fully  developed?  (2)  Are  questions  prompt,  clear  and  logical?  (3)  Are 
questions  asked  before  naming  the  pupil?  (4)  Are  pupils'  answers  re- 
peated? Characteristics — (1)  Is  the*  teacher  too  talkative?  (2)  Is  she 
natural  and  pleasant  in  speech?  (3)  Is  she  systematic?  (4)  Is  proper  at- 
tention paid  to  the  atmosphere  and  temperature? 

TEACHING — In  the  training  class  there  are  some  who  seem  "cut 
out"  for  primary  teaching,  some  for  intermediate  work,  and  occasionally 
one  who  is  capable  of  handling  even  seventh  and  eighth  grade  rooms.  The 
right  member  of  the  class  must  be  assigned  to  a  given  room  if  we  are 
to  avoid  disastrous  results  to  all  concerned.  A  live  instructor  will  soon 
acquire  a  fairly  intimate  knowledge  of  the  make-up  of  his  class  and 
can  generally  avoid  mistakes  in  assignment.  But  if  one  is  made,  the 
instructor  must  stay  with  the  case  and  see  that  the  experimenter  comes 
out  as  well  as  possible.  A  breakdown  cannot  be  permitted,  even  for  one 
session,  nor  can  a  change  be  made  with  safety. 

We  plan  to  give  eacn  member  of  the  training  class  from  three  to 
five  days'  actual  experience  during  the  semester  and  they  must  make  at 
least  one  report  on  their  own  practice  teaching.  Those  who  show  special 
aptitude  for  the  work  frequently  do  a  good  deal  of  supply  teaching  in 
case  of  sickness  or  unavoidable  absence  of  the  regular  teacher.  For  such 
work  they  receive  the  regular  pay  for  supply  teaching  after  they  have 
served  the  required  five  days. 

In  general  we  find  it  best  to  have  the  visiting  and  reporting  distrib- 
uted over  the  whole  semester,  averaging  one  of  two  reports  each  week. 
*NORMAL  TRAINING— ARITHMETIC. 
W.  T.  Davis,  Beaver  City. 

Our  work  in  arithmetic  this  year  will  cover  nine  weeks  in  the  second 
semester  of  the  twelfth  grade;  later,  however,  we  expect  to  devote  an 
entire  semester  to  the  subject. 

The  subject  matter  is  expected  to  be  as  follows:  A  pretty  close 
review  of  factors  and  divisors.  At  least  two  weeks  should  be  given  to 
the  subject  of  fractions — the  rock  upon  which  too  many  young  teachers 
come  to  grief.  Most  of  the  matter  usually  classified  under  the  term  of 
compound  numbers  should  be  passed  over  without  notice.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  the  special  rules  for  papering,  carpeting,  etc.  The  idea 
here  should  be  to  pass  over  everything  that  requires  only  the  application 
of  arbitrary  rule".  Concerning  this  the  law  uses  a  phrase  worth  keeping 
in  mind,  "underlying  principle." 

Longitude  and  time,  however,  merits  brief  review.  Parts  of  the  sub- 
ject upon  which  algebra  and  goemetry  throw  especially  strong  light 
should  receive  special  attention  as  they  now  become  the  application  of 
a  principle  already  learned.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  circle 
and  the  right  triangle  theorum. 
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ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  165 


Percentage  and  its  applications  will  demand  a  large  part  of  the  total 
time  and  here  is  the  place  where  we  will  be  most  likely  to  find  the 
student  either  "rusty"  or  with  only  vague  and  hazy  ideas  of  the  subject. 
Profit  and  loss  and  taxes  should  have  a  careful  review.  The  best  methods 
of  simple  interest  should  be  carefully  drilled  upon.  The  student  should 
now  be  ready  to  grasp  the  subject  of  stocks  and  bonds.  Even  exchange 
may  be  considered  if  time  allows.  The  subject  might  well  be  closed 
with  a  list  of  problems  involving  the  most  essential  principles  of 
arithmetic. 

The  pedagogy  of  the  subject  is  by  far  the  most  difficult  phase  de- 
manding solution  by  the  teacher.  Most  students  will  teach  as  they  were 
taught  so  every  lesson  should  be  a  model  so  far  as  possible.  Correct 
use  of  terms  and  accuracy  are  most  essential  in  this  work.  Every 
demonstration  of  a  problem  by  a  student  should  throw  him  in  the  true 
attitude  of  teacher  and  the  explanation  should  reach  the  maximum  of 
clearness  and  simplicity. 

The  teachers  in  the  grades  will  be  expected  to  give  model  lessons 
to  be  observed  by  the  normal  training  students.  As  far  as  possible 
these  wil]  be  "development  lessons."  The  student  will  be  required  to 
give  an  outline  of  the  lesson  observed  covering  both  matter  and  method. 
The  student  will  also  be  required  to  teach  as  well  as  to  observe.  Lesson 
plans  will  be  prepared,  submitted  and  approved  before  the  class  is  taught. 

In  this  way  at  least  an  idea  of  what  teaching  really  means  will  be 
given  the  prospective  teacher.  'It  should  also  cure  the  very  prevalent 
mistake  of  even  high  school  students  that  there  is  a  sort  of  divinity 
that  hedges  the  teacher  from  error  and  makes  him  able  to  teach  more  by 
inspiration  than  by  preparation. 

This  outline  contemplates  a  nine  weeks'  course  but  the  work  of  a 
semester  might  well  be  done  on  the  same  lines  and  with  only  slight 
modifications. 

*NORMAL  TRAINING— READING. 
Anna  Lockwood  Peterson,  Omaha. 

The  normal  course  in  the  Omaha  high  school  extends  through  the 
second  term  of  the  year,  from  January  to  the  middle  of  June.  In  reading, 
five  hours  of  instruction  a  week  are  given,  four  devoted  to  the  general 
subject  or  reading  and  the  fifth  to  primary  methods — the  last  in  charge 
of  Miss  Clara  Cooper,  the  able  supervisor  of  primary  instruction  in  the 
Omaha  public  schools. 

The  object  of  the  general  course  is  two-fold:  First,  to  assist  the  stud- 
ents in  teaching  reading  and,  second,  to  help  them  to  improve  their  own 
reading.  We  recognize  three  evident  reasons  for  the  poor  results  which 
too  often  follow  the  efforts  of  a  conscientious  teacher:  First,  lack  of  ap- 
preciation of  good  literature  on  the  part  of'the  teacher  of  reading.  Sec- 
ond, the  complexity  of  vocal  expression.  Third,  the  intangibility  of 

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166  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


vocal  expression.  Acknowledging  the  first  requisite  of  a  successful  teach- 
er of  reading  to  be  appreciation  of  the  meaning  and  beauty  of  good  liter- 
ature, we  have  required  the  normal  training  course  to  be  preceded  by 
three  and  a  half  years  of  thorough  training  in  literature  and  composition. 

We  hope  to  impress  upon  our  students  the  necessity  of  bringing  to 
this  study  not  only  a  love  for  the  best  in  the  world  of  books,  but  a  keen 
desire  to  make  their  pupils  love  the  best  and  eager  to  share  it  with 
others. 

The  complexities  of  vocal  expression  and  the  reasons  for  its  in- 
tangibility as  compared  with  arithmetic  or  geography,  for  example,  are 
defined  and  explained  by  the  instructor  during  the  first  four  to  six  weeks 
in  lectures  on  the  criteria  of  judgment,  i.  e.,  Time,  pitch,  quality  and 
force.  These  lectures  are  illustrated  by  members  of  the  class  after  study 
of  the  assigned  text-book,  Sherman  and  Reed's  Essentials  of  Teaching 
Reading.  These  lectures  are  followed  by  careful  drill  in  time  as  affected 
by  grouping  and  collateral  thoughts.  The  pause  is  dealt  with  as  an  ex- 
pressive element,  not  a  meaningless  silence  dependent  upon  arbitrary 
marks  of  punctuation.  An  effort  is  made  to  fix  firmly  the  habit  of  group- 
ing thought-units,  to  develop  power  of  discrimination  between  central, 
subordinate  and  successive  ideas  in  a  sentence  or  a  paragraph.  By  care- 
ful study  of  these  phases  of  expression  the  student  learns  how  to  get 
the  right  atmosphere  of  a  selection  and  can  then  read  with  proper  em- 
phasis, rhythm  and  emotion. 

Shorter  extracts  of  prose  or  verse  are  at  first  assigned  for  class 
preparation.  Later  in  the  term  entire  poems,  etc.,  are  studied  as  types 
of  literary  expression  and,  as  often  as  possible,  committed  to  memory. 

The  second  step  comes  in  the  study  of  method.  Having  an  under- 
standing of  the  principles  of  reading  the  student  is  shown  how  to  apply 
that  knowledge  in  teaching  younger  pupils.  All  possible  stress  is  laid 
on  thought-getting,  and  the  least  possible  stress  on  word-getting. 

Pupils  are  made  to  feel  that  the  essential  thing — to  quote  Prof. 
Clark — is  to  "get  the  thought,  hold  the  thought  and  give  the  thought." 
At  intervals  "lesson  talks"  are  given  by  the  instructor  (later  by  mem- 
bers of  the  class),  showing  how  to  present  each  step  of  the  work  to  little 
children  without  the  use  of  technical  terms  or  mechanical  directions  as 
to  inflections,  pause,  etc.  Poor  reading  is  due  to  lack  of  mental  grasp. 
The  child,  then,  can  not  read  until  he  has  the  thought-picture  from  the 
printed  page.  He  must  hold  that  thought  until  it  HOLDS  HIM.  He 
must  imagine,  must  feel,  before  he  can  express.  But  how  shall  he 
imagine,  feel  and  express  if  his  teacher  does  not?  Written  and  oral  tests 
of  progress  are  made  from  week  to  week  and  the  examination  at  the 
term's  end  is  partly  written  and  partly  oral.  Students  are  made 
to  realize,  if  possible,  that  no  merely  mechanical  knowledge  can  take 
the  place  of  personal  power;  that  the  successful  teacher  is  she  who- 
reads  well  herself  arnd,  by  so  doing,  rouses  the  enthusiasm  and  kindles 
the  imagination  of  her  class. 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  167 


A  word  of  our  difficulties — not  peculiar,  I  fancy,  to  Omaha.  First, 
we  are  not  always  satisfied  with  teaching  material  we  receive.  Our  best 
students  who  expect  to  teach  take  the  full  high  school  course  and  go 
afterward  to  a  good  normal  school  or  a  university  for  wider  training. 
Yet  last  year  in  a  class  of  forty  we  had  many  earnest,  hard-working 
students,  ready  at  all  times  to  do  their  best  before  the  class  and  eager 
to  improve.  Indeed,  at  the  end  of  the  term  several  said  that  they  "had 
never  worked  so  hard."  This  makes  us  hopeful  of  removing  in  time,  the 
second  obstacle — that  wide-spread  impression  that  "anybody  can  teach 
reading." 

-NORMAL  TRAINING— PEDAGOGY. 
Jas.  E.  Delzell,  Lexington. 

We  are  giving  two  periods  a  week  during  the  first  semester.  The 
length  of  the  periods  is  forty  minutes.  The  work  so  far  has  been  in 
the  form  of  lectures,  with  pupils  asking  questions  and  discussing  some 
phase  of  the  work  each  time.  We  are  following  "Hinsdale's  Art  of  Study" 
as  basis  for  our  talks  and  discussions.  We  find  the  persual  very  helpful 
to  the  pupils  in  their  every-day  school  work.  The  lives  of  the  leading 
educators  that  are  mentioned  in  the  Art  of  Study  are  studied  to  some 
extent,  thus  giving  a.  brief  course  in  the  history  of  education  as  we  go 
along. 

We  are  emphasizing  the  practical  side  of  school  work.  The  pupils 
are  asked  to  observe  the  work  of  each  of  their  teachers  and  to  watch  for 
the  strong  points  in  their  plan  of  work,  presentation  of  the  subject,  in- 
terest manifested  by  the  pupils  in  the  different  recitations  and  how  the 
pupils  devote  themselves  to  the  subjects  that  they  like  and  how  they 
neglect  work  not  to  their  taste.  This  has  been  of  value  to  the  thirty- 
six  that  are  in  the  pedagogy  class.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  criticisms 
made  by  pupils  are  not  of  the  wrong  kind,  that  which  will  tear  down 
the  work  of  a  teacher.  Since  we  organized  the  normal  class  I  find  that 
when  I  leave  the  seniors  for  a  time,  on  my  return  I  find  one  of  them 
reciting.  This  at  least  is  one  advantage  that  has  come  to  our  class. 

Pupils  that  are  not  strong  in  their  work  will  be  given  a  chance  to 
know  how  to  study  in  the  right  way  by  the  discussion  of  the  "Art  of 
Study,"  and  will  plan  their  work  so  as  to  get  all  that  they  are  capable 
of  getting  in  the  time  allotted  to  each  subject. 

We  are  also  laying  the  foundation  for  pupils  to  get  a  desire  to  under- 
stand the  "Why"  of  the  many  ways  used  to  keep  pupils  interested  in  the 
school  work  and  how  to  keep  them  in  school.  This  is  first  hinted  at  in 
the  introduction  of  the  "Course  of  Study."  This  arose  from  the  ques- 
tion, "Why  is  not  the  alphabetical  method  the  best  way  to  teach  Read- 
ing?" And  a  brief  discussion  of  the  different  methods  of  teaching  be- 
ginners how  to  read,  and  the  different  books  published,  led  to  a  short 
talk  on  the  course  of  study  as  used  in  Nebraska. 

*Prepared  especially  for  this  bulletin. 


168  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


Pedagogy  is  too  often  of  the  theoretical  kind  and  beyond  the  aver- 
age pupil's  ability  to  grasp  the  hidden  meanings  of  words  used.  Even 
the  authors  of  pedagogy  books  do  not  agree.  Hence  the  great  need  of 
keeping  close  to  the  understanding  of  the  learners.  Better  err  on  the 
side  of  teaching  a  little  of  pedagogy  too  well  than  to  teach  the  many 
terms  and  theories  and  leave  the  pupil  in  doubt  and  add  nothing  to  his 
ability  to  take  charge  of  a  school  at  the  end  of  the  normal  course  in  the 
high  school. 

How  to  study,  how  to  teach,  how  to  govern,  and  how  to  establish 
peace  in  a  community  are  some  of  the  many  qualifications  that  every 
teacher  needs.  We  trust  that  every  normal  class  in  the  schools  of  the 
state  will  in  some  way  imbibe  those  few  characteristics  of  the  helpful 
teacher. 

WHAT  THE  TEACHING  PROFESSION  OFFERS  YOUNG  MEN 

Every  young  man  when  he  reaches  the  years  of  understanding  and 
responsibility  is  faced  with  these  questions:  "What  can  I  be?  What  can 
I  do?  Where  is  my  place  in  life?"  He  cannot  escape  them  if  he  would, 
he  should  not  dodge  them  if  he  could.  The  all-important  question  for 
each  young  man  to  settle  is  to  find  out  what  nature  intended  him  to  do; 
then  study  and  fit  himself  for  his  chosen  calling.  The  great  cause  of  so 
many  failures  on  the  part  of  young  men  is  that  they  have  missed  their 
calling.  Sidney  Smith  says  that  if  you  choose  to  represent  the  various 
callings  in  life  by  holes  in  'a  table,  some  triangular,  some  oblong,  some 
circular,  some  square,  you  will  generally  find  that  the  oblong  person  is 
trying  to  get  into  the  triangular  hole,  while  the  square  person  is  doing 
his  best  to  squeeze  into  the  round  hole.  Dean  Swift  states  the  question 
this  way: 

''Brutes  find  out  where  their  talents  lie; 

A  bear  will  not  attempt  to  fly, 

A  foundered  horse  will  oft  debate 

Before  he  tries  a  five-barred  gate. 

A  dog  by  instinct  turns  aside 

Who  sees  the  ditch  too  deep  and  wide. 

But  man  we  find  the  only  creature 

Who,  led  by  folly,  combats  nature; 

Who,  when  she  loudly  cries — forbear! 

With  obstinacy  fixes  there; 

And  where  his  genius  least  inclines, 

Absurdly  bends  his  whole  designs." 

But  whatever  field  the  young  man  enters  today,  whether  it  be  farm- 
ing, stock  raising,  banking,  law,  theology,  medicine,  or  teaching,  tho 
demand  is  for  efficiency.  To  the  young  man  who  has  found  his  calling 
and  who  will  fit  himself  for  it,  there  never  were  batter  opportunities  for 
success  than  today. 


OF  THE  ' ' 

UNIVERSITY 

.          OF 
yAl   ICr\o\\' 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  169 


Let  us  call  the  attention  of  young  men  to  what  the  teaching  pro- 
fession opens  to  them.  We  remember  one  of  the  ablest  judges  oC  this 
state  used  to  say  that  if  a  young  man  contemplates  entering  the  pro- 
fession of  law  the  best  training  for  him  is  to  be  found  in  from  three  to 
five  years'  experience  in  the  business  of  school  teaching.  Among  the 
great  lawyers  of  this  country  who  began  their  career  as  school  teachers 
we  may  mention  Daniel  Webster  and  Thomas  B.  Reed.  The  most  brilliant 
politician  in  America  since  the  days  of  Henry  Clay  was  James  G.  Elaine. 
For  several  years  he  was  a  teacher  in  the  Western  Military  Institute 
at  Blue  Lick  Springs,  Kentucky.  He  also  taught  several  years  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Institute  for  the  Blind  at  Philadelphia.  Among  the  presi- 
dents who  have  dignified  the  profession  of  teaching  are  John  Adams, 
•Grover  Cleveland,  James  A.  Garfield,  and  William  McKinley.  In  the 
field  of  American  literature  we  recall  that  Longfellow,  Holmes  and 
Lowell  were  not  above  the  business  of  teaching  school.. 

Among  the  distinguished  citizens  of  Nebraska  who  have  laught  school 
we  may  mention  United  States  Senator  E.  J.  Burkett,  Congressman  E.  H. 
Hinshaw  of  the  fourth  congressional  district,  Congressman  George  W. 
Norris  of  the  Qftli  congressional  district,  Judge  C.  B.  Lettcn  of  the 
supreme  court,  Hen.  H.  H.  Wil~on  of  the  law  faculty  in  the  University  of 
NeV-^ska,  Land  Commissioner  H.  M.  Eaton,  Deputy  Attorney  General  W. 
B.  Kose,  former  chairman  of  the  Republican  State  Central  Committee. 
Hundreds  of  men  prominent  in  Nebraska  today  were  once  school  teachers. 

About  thirty-five  years  ago  a  bare  footed  boy  with  his  parents 
crossed  the  Missouri  river  near  Omaha.  In  a  covered  wagon. they  moved 
on  to  the  frontier  in  Nebraska,  where  the  young  man  herded  sheep  and 
cattle  barefooted.  He  attended  the  district  school.  He  studied  in  Doane 
College.  He  served  as  superintendent  at  Wilber,  Beatrice,  and 
Omaha;  respectively.  At  present  he  is  superintendent  of  the  Milwaukee 
public  schools  at  a  salary  of  $6,000  per  year. 

A  farmer  boy  in  Iowa  began  his  public  career  as  a  country  school 
teacher.  He  is  now  superintendent  of  the  city  schools  of  Chicago  at  a 
salary  of  $10,000  per  year.  At  the  last  meeting  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  he  was  elected  president. 

An  Irish  boy,  college  bred,  is  now  superintendent  of  the  city  schools 
or  New  York  at  a  salary  of  $10,000  per  year. 

Here  are  salaries  better  than  those  uf  United  States  Senators. 

When  Daniel  Webster  decide.d  to  take  up  the  profession  of  law  he 
was  told  by  his  friends  that  the  profession  was  overcrowded.  His 
reply  was,  "There  is  plenty  of  room  at  the  top."  Young  men,  if  you 
contemplate  entering  the  profession  of  teaching,  there  may  be  those 
who  will  tell  you  that  all  the  good  places  are  taken  and  that  the  profession 
is  overcrowded.  Our  reply  is,  "There  is  plenty  of  room  at  the  top." 


170  NORMAL,  TRAINING  IN  HIGH   SCHOOLS 


THE  NERVOUS  AND  PEEVISH  TEACHER. 

Worry  kills  many  teachers.  A  reasonable  amount  of  work,  intelligently 
planned,  is  the  elixir  of  life  to  the  true  teacher.  No  one  needs  perfect 
health  more  than  the  teacher.  Plenty  of  sleep,  sufficient  exercise,  good 
food  properly  taken  are  the  price  to  be  paid  for  good  health.  The  teacher 
who  keeps  late  hours,  whether  at  study  or  in  society,  is  nervous  and  peev- 
ish in  the  schoolroom.  Dr.  Henry  Houck,  for  nearly  forty  years  deputy 
state  superintendent  of  Pennsylvania,  gives  us  a  vivid  picture  of  this 
kind  of  teacher.  One  day  a  little  fellow  let  his  desk  down  and  it 
s-q-u-e-a-k-e-d  a  little.  The  teacher  s-c-r-e-a-m-e-d  out  in  her  agony,  "Johnny 
you  were  never  f;t  to  be  in  decent  company.  Come  up  here  and  sit  by  me." 
So  Johnny  deserted  decent  company  and  went  up  and  sat  down  by  his 
teacher.  Let  us  have  pity  for  such  a  teacher  and  let  us  have  sympathy 
for  her  pupils. 

THE   PATIENT  AND   INSPIRING   TEACHER. 

We  need  teachers  who  have  patience  with  the  timid  boy,  the  dull  boy, 
the  bad  boy;  who  have  patience  with  the  frivolous  girl,  the  stubborn  girl, 
the  indifferent  girl;  teachers  who  can  inspire  such  pupils  with  the  proper 
ideals  and  make  of  them  good  men  and  women.  A  story  is  told,  of  a 
boy  soldier  in  the  trenches  of  El  Caney,  who  at  the  first  sound  of  the 
enemy's  guns  and  the  singing  of  the  bullets,  fell  flat  on  his  face  in  terror 
sc  abject  that  neither  the  taunts  nor  the  kicks  from  his  comrades  could 
arouse  him  to  his  duty.  He  was  seen  by  General  Chaffee,  the  officer  in 
command,  who  ordered  him  to  get  up  and  fight.  "I  can't,"  he  whimpered^ 
"Shot?"  asked  the  general.  "No,  I'm  scared,"  replied  the  boy.  "A  fine 
soldier,"  said  the  general.  Then,  seeing  what  a  mere  boy  he  was,  he  took 
him  kindly  by  the  shoulder  and  said,  "There  isn't  so  much  danger  as  you 
think.  Get  up  and  take  your  gun  and  I'll  stand  by  you."  The  boy  got  up, 
white  with  fear  and  shaking  in  every  limb,  and  fired  his  first  shot  high 
in  the  air.  "Keep  cool  and  try  again,"  said  General  Chaffee  encouragingly. 
Within  three  minutes,  says  the  narrative,  "that  kid  was  fighting  like  a 
veteran."  This  story  illustrates  our  complex  human  nature.  A  kind  word, 
a  helping  hand,  "I'll  stand  by  you,"  from  the  teacher  is  as  great  an  inspira- 
tion to  her  pupils  as  such  kindness  was  en  the  part  of  the  general  to  the 
soldier. 

CARE  OF  SCHOOL  PROPERTY. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  teacher  to  instill  in  her  pupils  a  desire  to  take 
proper  care  of  all  school  property.  Under  our  present  free  text-book  law 
this  subject  is  one  of  great  importance.  Experience  proves  that  where 
proper  care  is  exercised  by  the  school  board  and  teachers  this  law  is 
popular  and  satisfactory;  but  it  becomes  a  detriment  and  a  nuisance  when- 
ever pupils  are  permitted  to  carelessly  soil,  mark,  deface,  or  destroy  the 
books.  Teachers  should  appeal  to  the  pride  of  their  pupils  in  a  proper 
use  of  the  books;  insist  on  habits  of  neatness  and  cleanliness;  make  a 
regular  inspection  of  books,  at  least  once  a  month; — no  other  agency  is 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  171 


more  effective  than  a  regular  book  inspection.  Teachers  should  also  hold 
pupils  responsible  for  preserving  and  returning  books  in  good  order  by  the 
proper  use  of  the  permanent  text-book  record. 

It  is  a  crime  under  the  Criminal  Code  of  Nebraska  for  any  person  to 
wilfully  and  maliciously  injure  or  deface  any  school  property.  Section  111 
of  the  Criminal  Code  reads : 

"If  any  person  shall  wilfully  and  maliciously  injure  or  deface  any 
church  edifice,  school  house,  dwelling  house,  or  other  building,  its 
fixtures,  books  or  appurtenances,  or  shall  commit  any  nuisance  therein 
or  shall  purposely  and  maliciously  commit  any  trespass  upon  the 
enclosed  grounds  attached  thereto,  or  any  fixtures  placed  thereon,  or 
any  enclosure  or  sidewalk  about  the  same,  such  person  shall  be  fined 
in  any  sum  not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars. 

It  is  nothing  short  of  criminal  negligence  the  way  some  schools  permit 
pupils  to  maliciously  injure  or  deface  school  property.  A  prudent  watch- 
fulness in  the  care  of  school  property  is  a  better  means  of  teaching 
morality  than  long  lectures  on  the  subject  and  then  to  permit  pupils  to 
violate  the  law  in  a  reckless  destruction  of  public  property. 

HIGHER    EDUCATION. 

Let  every  rural  teacher  in  Nebraska  inspire  her  pupils  with  a  desire 
for  a  high  school  education.  Let  every  high  school  teacher  urge  our  young 
people  on  to  college,  university  and  normal  school.  Let  every  young  man 
and  every  young  woman  know  that  the  demand  on  them  is  for  efficiency. 
The  questions  are  often  asked,  "Does  education  help  one  to  success?" 
and  "What  amount  of  school  training  helps  most?"  The  editors  of  Who's 
Who  in  America  have  rendered  the  country  a  service  by  inducing  more 
than  10,000  of  the  men  now  living  in  the  United  States,  who  are  most 
notable  in  all  departments  of  usefulness  and  reputable  endeavor,  to  report 
their  ed-  cation.  These  men  have  won  enviable  Distinction,  and  the  facts 
they  give  will  hevp  answer  the  questions,  "Does  education  help  one  to 
success?  and  "What  am  unt  of  school  training  helps  most?  It  thus 
appears: 

1.  That    from     1870    the     uneducated    boy    in    the    United     States 
failed  entirely  to  Vecome  ro  notaole  in  any  department  of  usefulness  and 
reputable  endeavor  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Who's  Who  editors, 
and  that  only  twenty-four  self-taught  men  succeeded. 

2.  That  a  boy  with  only  a  common  school  education  had,  in  round 
numbers,  one  chance  in  9,000. 

3.  That  a  high  school  training  increased  this  chance  nearly  twenty- 
two  times. 

4.  That  college  education  added  gave  the  young  man  about  ten  times 
the  chance  of  a  high  school  boy  and  two  hundred  times  the  chance  of  a 
boy  whose  training  stopped  with  the  common  school. 

In  a  Sod  Schoolhouse. 
In  October,  1903,  in  company  with  Superintendent  McLaughlin,  we 


172  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


spent  a  week  visiting  schools  in  Boyd  county.  One  day  we  came  upon  a 
sod  schoolhouse.  Neither  the  teacher  nor  the  pupils  knew  we  were  coming. 
When  we  entered  the  school  room  there  was  no  staring  at  us,  no  laughing 
at  us,  no  uncomplimentry  remarks.  Every  pupil  kept  at  his  work.  Classes 
were  called  and  dismissed  in  good  order.  There  were  fourteen  pupils 
present.  But  the  school  house  presented  a  tumbled-down  appearance.  We 
could  look  out  through  the  roof  and  see  the  sun  and  the  sky.  We  could 
see  out  of  the  door  without  opening  it.  Some  of  the  window  lights  were 
out.  There  were  holes  in  the  floor  which  was  laid  almost  on  the  earth — 
just  two  by  two-inch  scantlings  under  it. 

We  heard  a  spelling  class  recite.  It  was  composed  of  five  little  girls 
and  one  boy, — Dick,  a  red-haired,  freckled-faced,  shabbily  dressed  little 
fellow,  who  took  his  place  at  the  head  of  the  class.  As  he  came  to  the 
recitation  he  pushed  one  foot  along  over  the  rough  floor.  At  first  we 
thought  he  was  lame.  But  a  glance  told  the  cause  and  we  looked  the  other 
way.  He  was  wearing  an  old  shoe  that  would  hardly  hang  on  his  foot. 
The  upper  was  almost  entirely  gone.  Had  he  lifted  his  foot  the  old  shoe 
sole  would  have  flapped,  flapped,  flapped,  as  he  walked.  There  was  a 
hole  in  the  floor  where  Dick  stood.  As  a  policy  of  double  economy  and  yet 
with  an  art  that  would  tempt  the  painter's  brush,  he  let  the  foot  on  which 
he  wore  the  paralyzed  old  shoe  drop  carelessly  into  the  hole  in  the  floor, 
first,  to  hide  the  old  shoe,  and,  second,  to  cover  the  hole  in  the  floor.  But 
Dick  held  his  place  at  the  head  of  the  class.  The  proud  sparkle  in  his 
eyes,  the  bright  gleam  on  his  face,  his  manly,  heroic  bearing  as  he  saw 
the  teacher  make  a  record  of  his  victory  and  heard  her  say,  "Dick  wins  the 
head  mark  today,"  told  us  that  Dick  had  caught  the  soul-inspiring  strains 
of  Robert  Burns,  who  was  himself  a  son  of  toil:  • 

Through  losses  and  crosses 

Be  lessons  right  severe, 

There's  wit  there,  you'll  get  there, 

You'll  find  no  ither  where. 

Never  mind  tire  crowd,  lad, 

Or  fancy  life  won't  tell ; 

The  work's  a  work  for  a'  that 

To  him  that  doeth  it  well; 

Fancy  the  world  a  hill,  lad, 

Look  where  the  millions  stop ; 

You'll  find  the  crowd  at  the  base,  lad, 

There's  plenty  of  room  at  the  top. 

McKinley's  Struggle  for  an  Education. 

All  good  costs.     Strength  is  born  of  struggle. 
"Each  aspiration  of  our  human  earth 
Becomes  an  act  through  keenest  pangs  of  birth; 
Each  force,  to  bless,  must  cease  to  be  a  dream, 
And  conquers  life  through  agony  supreme." 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  173 


A  mother's  toil,  a  sister's  sacrifice,  a  father's  denial,  and  his  own  best 
efforts — all  this — was  the  price  paid  for  McKinley's  education. 

The  following  story  taken  from  the  "Illustrious  Life  of  William  Mc- 
Kinley,"  by  Murat  Halstead,  tells  us  something  of  the  trials  and  privations 
through  which  he  made  his  way  into  public  life. 

"Young  McKinley  grew  into  manhood  in  the  village  of  Poland,  Ohio, 
a  town  which  possessed  a  seminary  for  boys  and  giris  of  the  type  of  the 
New  England  academy.  To  Poland  seminary  came  ambitious  young  men 
and  young  women  from  the  neighboring  farms,  eager  for  the  book-learning 
of  the  schools  and  believing  that  its  possession  would  open  broad  highways 
to  success  in  life.  Some  engaged  rooms  and  board  at  the  rate  of  $2  a  week, 
and  others  reduced' this  very  modest  cost  of  living  by  taking  rooms  alone 
and  eating  the  victuals  sent  in  to  them  weekly  by  their  parents.  None  of 
these  bright  young  people  felt  that  they  were  poor.  They  were  all  accus- 
tomed to  the  close  economies  of  the  farm  life  of  that  period,  and  were  not 
in  the  least  ashamed  of  them.  The  richest  man  in  Poland  at  that  time 
was  not  worth  ten  thousand  dollars.  A  man  with  five  thousand  dollars' 
worth  of  property  and  no  debts  was  thought  to  be  well  off.  Mrs.  McKinley 
helped  out  the  narrow  income  of  the  family  by  taking  boarders  and  herself 
did  the  cooking  with  the  help  of  the  girls. 

•'Young  McKinley  was  an  ardent  student.  It  was  his  mother's  ambition 
as  well  as  his  own  that  he  should  go  through  college  and  then  study  law, 
but  whether  this  aim  could  be  accomplished  was  always  rather  doubtful. 
The  father  was  frugal,  industrious  and  self-denying,  but  he  had  a  large 
family  to  provide  for  and  his  earnings  were  small.  William  did  what  he 
could  help  out  the  family  income  by  one  sort  of  work  or  another  in 
vacation  times.  At  one  time  it  was  almost  decided  that  the  plan  for  his 
education  must  be  abandoned,  but  his  elder  sister,  Annie,  came  to  the 
rescue  with  the  money  she  had  saved  as  a  school  teacher." 

In  Old  Drumtochty. 

While  Domsie  Jamieson  was  the  schoolmaster  in  the  good  old  country 
place  of  Drumtochty  they  always  had  a  student  at  the  university.  "Seven 
ministers,  four  doctors,  one  professor  and  three  civil  service  men  had  been 
sent  out  by  the  auld  schule  in  Domsie's  time,  besides  many  that  'had  given 
themselves  to  mercantile  pursuits.'  " 

The  last  legislature  gave  us  a  free  high  school  law.  Practically  every 
high  school  in  Nebraska  is  free  and  open  to  the  boys  and  girls  who  com- 
plete the  work  of  the  rural  schools.  The  high  school  is  indeed  becoming 
the  people's  college.  The  boys  and  girls  who  come  from  the  rural  school  to 
the  high  school  are,  as  a  rule,  the  cream  of  the  country  schools,  and  they 
not  only  maintain  but  raise  the  standards  of  the  high  school.  There  are 
many  doubtless  who  do  not  attend  the  high  school  because  they  find  it  hard 
to  pay  their  board.  But  where  there  is  a  will  there  is  a  way.  Poverty  may 
be  inconvenient  and  sometimes  intolerable  but  he  who  is  born  poor  is  often 
fortunate.  Tell  the  story  of  Garfield's  struggles  and  privations  for  a  col- 


174  NORMAL    TRAINING   IN    HIGH    SCHOOLS 


lege  education  in  every  country  school  and  in  every  high  school  of  Nebras- 
ka, for  it  will  be  a  source  of  inspiration  to  every  one  who  hears  it.  It  is 
more  interesting  than  a  novel,  because  it  is  true.  It  is  the  story  of  uncon- 
querable determination  and  sublime  self-reliance,  of  lofty  purpose  and  in- 
flexible resolve,  of  incorruptible  integrity  and  moral  courage  of  the  highest 
type,  of  noble  effort  and  magnificent  achievement,  of  prolonged  struggle, 
crowned  by  the  most  brilliant  triumphs.  He  emerged  from  an  obscurity 
as  profound,  and  reached  an  elevation  as  lofty  as  is  seldom  the  lot  of  man. 
His  hardships  and  disadvantages  were  the  wings  wherewith  he  soared. 
See  him  as  a  driver  of  a  muleteam  on  the  tow-path  of  the  Ohio  canal! 
As  a  struggling  janitor  and  industrious  student  at  Hiram's  academy! 
a  graduate  of  renown  at  Williams  college!  See  him  just  after  his 
nomination  for  the  presidency  on  his  return  to  Washington, 
where  a  reception  is  tendered  him.  He  stands  in  the  balcony  of  the 
Riggs  House  beneath  a  blaze  of  electric  light.  He  seems  to  have  reached 
the  apex  of  human  ambition.  He  is  a  member  of  the  national  house  of 
representatives,  United  States  senator-elect  from  Ohio  and  the  candidate 
of  his  party  for  the  presidency.  Such  an  accumulation  of  honors  has  never 
before  fallen  on  an  American  citizen! 

But  after  all  is  it  not  a  lack  of  interest  rather  than  a  want  of  money 
keeps  so  many  of  our  young  men  and  young  women  ou  of  the  college  and 
university?  Would  that  our  teachers  could  get  a  hold  on  their  patrons  like 
unto  that  Domsie  Jamieson  had  upon  the  people  of  old  Drumtochty.  It 
would  solve  both  the  interest  and  money  side  of  this  question  of  higher 
education. 

"There  was  just  a  single  ambition  in  those  humble  homes,  to  have 
one  of  its  members  at  college,  and  if  Domsie  approved  a  lad,  then  his 
brothers  and  sisters  would  give  their  wages,  and  the  family  would  live 
or  skimmilk  and  oat  cake,  to  let  him  have  his  chance." 

Hasten  the  day  when  there  will  be  such  a  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  in 
thousands  of  homes  in  this  great  commonwealth,  in  both  city  and  country, 
now  negligent  of  their  duty  to  their  children  in  matters  of  education.  For 
every  child  that  comes  into  this  world  has  a  right  to  an  education. 

The  reward  of  those  teachers  who  strive  for  this  ideal  "is  better  than 
the  merchandise  of  silver,  and  the  gain  thereof  than  fine  gold."  It  is  the 
gratitude  of  patrons  and  the  eulogy  of  pupils.  When  Domsie  Jamieson 
received  that  wonderful  letter  from  his  old  pupil,  Geordie  Hoo,  it  read: 
"Dear  Mr.  Jamieson:  The  class  honor  lists  are  just  out,  and  you  will  be 
pleased  to  know  that  I  have  got  the  medal  both  in  the  humanity  and 
Greek."  There  was  somethng  in  this  letter  about  telling  his  mother  and 
his  gratitude  to  his  old  teacher,  "but  Domsie  heard  no  more.  He  tried  to 
speak  and  could  not,  for  a  rain  of  tears  was  on  his  hard  old  face." 

When  they  carried  the  good  news  to  Geordie's  mother,  and  met  her 
at  "the  end  of  the  house  beside  the  brier  bush,"  Domsie  tried  to  read  the 
letter,  but  "between  the  shaking  of  his  hands  and  his  voice  he  could  not." 
"It's  nae  use,"  he  cried,  "he's  first  in  the  humanity  oot  o'  a  hundred  and 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  175 


seventy  lads,  first  o'  them  a',  and  he's  first  in  the  Greek,  too;  the  like 
o'  this  is  hardly  known,  and  it  hasna  been  seen  in  Drumtochty  since  there 
was  a  schule.  That's  the  word  he's  sent,and  he  bade  me  tell  his  mother 
without  delay,  and  I  am  here  as  fast  as  my  old  feet  could  carry  me." 

"Margaret  was  silent  for  the  space  of  five  seconds.  She  took  the 
Dominie's  hand,  and  said  to  him  'Under  God  this  was  your  doing,  Maister 
Jamieson,  and  for  your  reward  ye'll  get  naither  silver  nor  gold,  but  ye  hae 
a  mither's  gratitude.'  " 

Eloquent  tribute  Thomas  Jefferson  paid  his  old  Scotch  professor, 
William  Small:  "He  was  the  man  who  fixed  the  destinies  of  my  life." 

Garfield  was  attracted  to  Williams  College  by  the  fame  of  Mark  Hop- 
kins, who  was  then  at  the  serene  meridian  of  his  great  powers  as  a  philo- 
sophic teacher.  But  in  the  fulness  of  time  Garfield's  day  of  greatness 
came.  Did  he  forget  to  pronounce  a  fitting  eulogy  on  his  old  teacher? 
One  of  the  first  public  acts  after  his  inauguration  was  to  receive  in  the 
•east  room  of  the  executive  mansion  at  Washington  the  venerable  educator 
and  a  delegation  of  Williams  alumni,  to  whose  adress  of  congratulation 
he  made  a  feeling  response.  "For  a  quarter  of  a  century,"  said  President 
Garfield,  "Doctor  Hopkins  has  seemed  to  me  a  man  apart  from  other  men, 
standing  on  an  intellectual  and  moral  mountain  peak,  embodying  in  himself 
much  of  the  majesty  of  earth,  and  reflecting  in  his  noble  life  something  of 
the  sunlight  and  glory  of  heaven." 

Matchless,  therefore,  is  the  opportunity  of  the  true  teacher.  Matchless 
also  is  the  responsibility. 

SELF-CULTURE. 

Self-culture  is  the  teacher's  golden  opportunity.  Self-culture  is  pos- 
sible. Self-culture  is  moral.  Self-culture  is  religious.  Self-culture  is  in- 
tellectual. Self-culture  is  social.  Self-culture  is  practical.  "It  proposes 
as  one  of  its  chief  ends  to  fit  us  for  action,to  make  us  efficient  in  whatever 
we  undertake,  to  train  us  to  firmness  of  purpose  and  to  fruitfulness  of 
resource  in  common  life,  and  especially  in  emergencies,  in  times  of 
difficulty,  danger,  and  trial." 

As  to  the  means  of  promoting  self-culture  we  quote  from  William  El- 
lery  Charming  in  his  unrivaled  address  on  this  subject: 

"The  great  means  of  self-culture,  that  which  includes  all  the  rest, 
is  to  fasten  on  this  culture  as  our  Great  End,  to  determine  deliberately 
and  solemnly  that  we  will  make  the  most  and  the  best  of  the  powers 
which  God  has  given  us.  Without  this  resolute  purpose  the  best  means 
are  worth  little,  and  with  it  the  poorest  become  mighty.  You  may  see 
thousands,  with  every  opportunity  of  improvement  which  wealth  can 
gather,  with  teachers,  libraries,  and  apparatus,  bringing  nothing  to  pass 
and  others  with  few  helps  doing  wonders;  and  simply  because  the  latter 
are  in  earnest  and  the  former  are  not.  One  in  earnest  finds  means  or 
creates  them.  A  vigorous  purpose  makes  much  out  of  little,  breathes 
power  with  weak  instruments,  disarms  difficulties,  and  even  turns  them 
into  assistances." 


176  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH   SCHOOLS 


Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  books  in  the  self-culture  of  teachers. 
It  is  not  the  number  of  books  you  read  but  the  quality  of  the  books  and 
your  manner  of  reading  them  that  count  in  self-culture.  "Reading  without 
purpose  is  sauntering,  not  exercise.  More  is  got  from  one  book  on  which 
the  thought  settles  for  a  definite  end  in  knowledge,  than  from  libraries 
skimmed  over  by  a  wandering  eye.  A  cottage  flower  gives  honey  to  the 
bee, — a  king's  garden  none  to  the  butterfly." 

The  memorizing  of  thought-gems  has  long  been  recognized  by  educators 
as  one  of  the  most  efficient  means  of  culture.  This  is  profitable  for  both 
teachers  and  pupils.  The  teacher  whose  mind  is  apt  in  responding  with 
choice  extracts  from  our  best  literature  is  far  superior  to  the  teacher  who 
is  bankrupt  in  this  great  field  of  knowledge.  Let  every  teacher  who  wishes 
to  attain  a  mastery  of  the  English  language,  who  would  learn  to  think 
naturally,  clearly,  logically,  and  to  express  herself  intelligibly  and  earnestly 
to  her  pupils  store  her  mind  with  the  best  thoughts  of  the  best  authors. 
The  teacher  who  will  commit  to  memory  one  brief,  choice  selection  each 
day  for  a  year,  making  the  thought  and  the  sentiment  of  the  author  her 
own,  will  find  herself  so  improved  in  her  command  of  English  and  so 
accomplished  in  her  conversational  powers  as  to  be  an  inspiration  to  her 
pupils  and  to  her  friends.  The  quotations  herein  given  are  suggested  for 
the  teacher's  study.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  .selection  of 
memory  gems  for  puplis,  making  them  on  a  plane  with  the  pupil's  under- 
standing. 

Extracts. 

One  of  the  illusions  is  that  the  present  hour  is  not  the  critical,  decisive 
hour.  Write  it  on  your  heart  that  every  day  is  the  best  day  in  the  year.— 
Emerson. 

Thank  heaven  for  breath, — yes  for  mere  breath — when  it  is  made  up 
of  a  breeze  like  this!  It  comes  with  a  real  kiss  upon  our  cheeks;  it 
would  linger  fondly  around  us  if  it  might;  but  since  it  must  be  gone,  it 
embraces  us  with  its  whole  kindly  heart,  and  passes  onward  to  embrace 
likewise  the  next  thing  that  it  meets.  A  blessing  is  flowing  around  and 
scattered  far  and  wide  over  the  earth,  to  be  gathered  up  by  all  who  choose. 
— Hawthorne. 

It  is  excellent  discipline  for  an  author  to  feel  that  he  must  say  all 
that  he  has  to  say  in  the  fewest  possible  words,  or  his  reader  is  sure  to 
skip  them;  and  in  the  plainest  possible  words,  or  his  reader  will  certainly 
misunderstand  them.  Generally,  also,  a  downright  fact  may  be  told  in  a 
plain  way;  and  we  want  downright  facts  at  the  present  more  than  any- 
thing else. — Ruskin. 

The  triumphs  of  the  warrior  are  bounded  by  the  narrow  theatre  of 
his  own  age;  but  those  of  a  Scott  or  a  Shakespeare  will  be  renewed  with 
greater  and  greater  lustre  in  ages  yet  unborn,  when  the  victorious  chief- 
tain shall  be  forgotten,  or  live  only  in  the  song  of  the  minstrel  and  the 
page  of  the  chronicler. — Prescott. 

Surely  happiness  is  reflective,  like  the  light  of  heaven;   and  every 


UNJVErv 

OF  y 

I  .    .  ^/ 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  177 


countenance  bright  with  smiles,  and  glowing  with  innocent  enjoyment,  is 

a  mirror  transmitting  to  others  the  rays  of  a  supreme  and  ever-shining 

benevolence. — Irving. 

He's  true  to  God  who's  true  to  man;  wherever  wrong  is  done, 

To  the  humblest  and  the  weakest  'neath  the  all-beholding  sun, 

That  wrong  is  also  done  to  us;  and  they  are  slaves  most  base 

Whose  love  of  right  is  for  themselves,  and  not  for  all  the  race. 

—Lowell. 

No  one  is  so  accursed  by  fate, 
No  one  so  utterly  desolate, 

But  some  heart,  though  unknown, 
Responds  unto  his  own, 
Responds  as  if,  with  unseen  wings, 
An  angel  touched  the  quiverng  strings, 
And  whispered  in  his  song, 
Where  hast  thou  staid  so  long? 

— Longfellow. 

One-story  intellects,  two-story  intellects,  three-story  intellects  with 
skylights.  All  fact-collectors  who  have  no  aim  beyond  their  facts,  are  one- 
story  men.  Two-story  men  compare,  reason,  generalize,  using  the  labors 
of  the  fact  collectors,  as  well  as  their  own.  Three-story  men  idealize, 
imagine,  predict;  their  best  illumination  comes  from  above,  through  the 
skylight. — Holmes. 
The  riches  of  a  commonwealth 

Are  free,  strong  minds  and  hearts  of  health; 
And  more  to  her  than  gold  or  grain, 
The  cunning  hand  and  cultured  brain. 

Whittier. 

In  men  whom  men  condemn  as  ill 
I  find  so  much  of  goodness  still, 
In  men  whom  men  pronounce  divine 

I  find  so  much  of  sin  and  blot, 
I  hesitate  to  draw  a  line 
Between  the  two,  where  God  has  not. 

Joaquin  Miller. 

So  live  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan  that  moves 
To  that  mysterious  realm  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death, — 
Thou  go,  not  like  the  quarry-slave  at  night, 
Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but  sustained  and  soothed 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave 
Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
About  him,  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams. 

— Bryant. 

O  the  anguish  of  that  thought  that  we  can  never  atone  to  our  dead 


178  NORMAL  TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


for  the  stinted  affection  we  gave  them,  for  the  light  answers  we  returned 
to  their  plaints  or  their  pleadings,  for  the  little  reverence  we  showed 
to  that  sacred  human  soul  that  lived  so  close  to  us,  and  was  the  divinest 
thing  God  has  given  us  to  know. — Eliot. 

Oh,  wad  some  power  the  giftie  gie  us 

To  see  oursels  as  ithers  see  us! 

It  wad  frae  monie  a  blunder  free  us 
And  foolish  notion. 

What  airs  in  dress  and  gait  wad  lea'  us, 
And  e'en  devotion. 

— Burns. 

A  cheerful  temper,  joined  with  innocence,  will  make  beauty  attractive, 
knowledge  delightful,  and  wit  good-natured.  It  will  lighten  sickness,  pov- 
erty, and  affliction,  convert  ignorance  into  an  amiable  simplicity,  and 
render  deformity  itself  agreeable. — Addison. 

This  above  all — to  thine  ownself  be  true, 

And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day, 

Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man. 

— Shakespeare. 

Oh  let  us  fill  our  hearts  up  with  the  glory  of  the  day, 
And  banish  ev'ry  doubt  and  care  and  sorrow  fur  away. . 
whatever  be  our  station,  providence  fer  guide, 
Sich  fine  circumstances  ort  to  make  us  satisfied; 
Fer  the  world  is  full  of  roses,  and  the  roses  full  of  dew, 
And  the  dew  is  full  of  heavenly  love  that  drips  fer  me  and  you. 

— Riley. 

An  ideal  is  above  price.  It  means  the  difference  between  success  and 
failure — the  difference  between  a  noble  life  and  a  disgraceful  career,  and 
it  sometimes  means  the  difference  between  life  and  death.  Have  you 
noticed  the  increasing  number  of  suicides?  I  speak  not  of 
those  sad  cases  in  which  the  reason  dethroned  leaves  the  hand  no  guide, 
but  rather  of  those  cases,  increasing  in  number,  where  the  person  who 
takes  his  life  finds  nothing  worth  living  for.  When  I  read  of  one  of  these 
cases  I  ask  myself  whether  it  is  not  caused  by  a  false  ideal  of  life.  If  one 
measures  life  by  what  others  do  for  him  he  is  apt  to  be  disappointed,  for 
people  are  not  likely  to  do  as  much  for  him  as  he  expects.  One  of  the 
most  difficult  things  in  life  is  to  maintain  the  parity  between  one's  opinion 
of  his  own  merits  and  the  opinion  that  others  have  of  him.  If,  I  repeat, 
a  man  measures  life  by  what  others  do  for  him,  he  is  apt  to  be  disap- 
pointed, but  if  he  measures  life  by  what  he  does  for  others,  there  is  no 
time  for  despair.  If  he  measures  life  by  its  accumulations,  these  usually 
fall  short  of  his  expectations,  but  if  he  measures  life  by  the  contribution 
which  he  makes  to  the  sum  of  human  happiness,  his  only  disappointment 
is  in  not  finding  time  to  do  all  that  his  heart  prompts  him  to  do.  Whether 
he  spends  his  time  trying  to  absorb  from  the  world,  only  to  have  the 
burden  of  life  grow  daily  heavier,  or  spends  his  time  in  an  effort  to  accom- 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  179 


plish  something  of  real  value  to  the  race,  depends  upon  his  ideal.  The 
ideal  must  be  far  enough  above  us  to  keep  us  looking  up  toward  it  all 
the  time,  and  it  must  be  far  enough  in  advance  of  us  to  keep  us  struggling 
toward  it  to  the  end  of  life.  It  is  a  very  poor  ideal  that  one  ever  fully 
realizes,  and  it  is  a  great  misfortune  for  one  to  overtake  his  ideal,  for 
when  he  does  his  progress  stops. — Bryan. 

Self-Culture  in  Conversation. 

The  sucessful  teacher  must  be  a  gifted  conversationalist.  She  must 
make  it  a  constant  rule  always  to  talk  as  well  as  she  can  and  she  will 
infinitely  improve  by  practice.  It  is  worth  while  for  every  one  of  us  to 
pattern  after  Emerson  in  our  conversation,  and  not  be  so  careless  as  we 
often  are.  "Emerson  was  sparing  of  words,  but  used  them  with  great 
precision  and  nicety.  If  he  had  been  followed  about  by  a  shorthand  writing 
Bdswell,  every  sentence  he  ever  uttered  might  have  been  preserved.  To 
hear  him  talk  was  like  watching  one  crossing  a  brook  on  stepping  stones. 
His  noun  had  to  wait  for  its  verb  or  its  adjective  until  he  was  ready;  then 
his  speech  would  come  down  upon  the  word  he  wanted,  and  not  Worcester 
or  Webster  could  better  it  from  all  the  wealth  of  their  huge  vocabularies." 

The  chief  requisite  of  this  art  cannot  be  better  stated  than  by  its  great 
master,  Samuel  Johnson;  "There  must,  in  the  first  place,  be  knowledge; 
there  must  be  materials; — in  the  second  place,  there  must 
be  a  command  of  words; — in  the  third  place,  there  must  be  imagination,  to 
place  things  in  such  views  as  they  are  not  commonly  seen  in; — and  in  the 
fourth  place,  there  must  be  the  presence  of  mind,  and  a  resolution  that 
is  not  to  be  overcome  by  failures;  this  last  is  an  essential  requisite;  for 
want  of  it  many  people  do  not  excel  in  conversation." 
Self-Culture  in  Story  Telling. 

The  successful  teacher  must  be  a  good  story  teller,  not  for  the  sake 
of  provoking  merriment  and  laughter,  but  for  the  purpose  of  driving  home 
some  truth  or  clinching  some  point  with  the  felicitious  brevity  of  an  Aesop 
fable.  She  must  have  her  story  well  learned  and  know  how  to  tell  it. 
The  teacher  who  is  a  master  of  this  art  can  clothe  the  dry  facts  of  history 
with  romance  and  make  any  subject  interesting.  Suppose  the  class  is 
studying  the  annexation  of  Texas.  The  teacher  who  can  tell  briefly  the 
thrilling  story  of  Sam  Houston  will  arouse  greater  interest  among  her 
pupils  than  by  forcing  them  to  copy — by  proxy  oftentimes — never  to  read 
again — many  volumes  of  "original  sources."  Let  the  teacher  give  the  class, 
an  opportunity  to  tell  what  they  have  learned  on  this  question  and  espec- 
ially let  them  tell  something  of  General  Houston's  part  in  this  drama. 
Then,  if  the  teacher  can  add  something  like  the  following,  it  will  inspire 
a  spirit  of  investigation  and  original  research  that  wil  bring  down  from  the 
shelves  every  dusty  volume  in  the  library:  "General  Houston  had  a  personal 
history  as  romantic  as  that  of  an  ancient  crusader.  He  was  a  native  of 
Virginia,  a  representative  in  Congress  from  Tennessee,  and  governor  of 
that  state  before  he  was  thirty-five.  He  was  the  intimate  and  trusted  friend 


ISO  NORMAL   TRAINING    IN    HIGH    SCHOOLS 


of  Jackson.  Having  resigned  his  governorship  on  account  of  domestic 
trouble,  he  fled  from  civilized  life,  joined  the  Indians  of  the  western  plains, 
roved  with  them  for  years,  adopted  their  habits,  and  was  made  chief  of  a 
tribe.  Returning  to  civilization,  he  emigrated  to  Texas  and  led  the  revolt 
against  Mexico,  fought  battles  and  was  victorious,  organized  a  new  repub- 
lic, and  was  made  its  president.  Then  he  returned  to  his  native  land,  bear- 
ing in  his  hand  the  gift  of  a  great  dmoinion.  Once  more  under  the  Union 
flag  he  sat  in  the  capitol  as  a  United  States  senator  from  Texas.  But 
the  deep  mystery  of  the  man's  life  cannot  be  explained  without  the  follow- 
ing anecdote:  Soon  after  his  inaugration  as  governor  of  Tennessee  he 
had  married  an  accomplished  young  lady,  to  whom  he  one  day  intimated, 
in  jest,  that  she  apparently  cared  more  for  a  former  lover  than  she  did 
for  him.  'You  are  correct,'  said  she  earnestly,  'I  love  Mr.  Nickerson's  little 
finger  better  than  I  do  your  whole  body.'  Words  ensued,  and  the  next  day 
Sam  Houston  resigned  his  governorship.  Then  followed  the  thrilling  ex- 
periences just  narrated." 

A   HIGH   AND  HONORABLE   PROFESSION. 

Above  all  be  Icyal  to  your  cointy  superintended,  to  your  high  school 
principal,  to  your  city  superintendent,  to  your  board  of  education,  to  your 
fellow  teachers,  to  your  pupils,  and  to  your  profession.  Appreciate  the 
grandeur  of  your  work  as  pictured  by  President  Roosevelt  to  the  National 
Educational  Association,  July  7,  1905,  at  Ocean  Grove,  New  Jersey. 

"It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  characteristic  work  of  the  Republic 
is  that  done  by  the  teachers;  by  the  teachers,  for  whatever  our  short-com- 
ings as  a  nation  may  be — and  we  have  certain  shortcomings — we  have  at 
least  firmly  grasped  the  fact  that  we  cannot  do  our  part  in  the  difficult  and 
all-important  work  of  self  government,  that  we  cannot  rule  and  govern 
ourselves,  unless  we  approach  the  task  with  developed  minds,  and  with 
what  counts  for  more  than  developed  minds,  with  trained  characters. 

"You  teachers — and  it  is  a  mere  truism  to  say  this — you  teachers 
make  the  whole  world  your  debtor,  and  of  you  it  can  be  said,  as  it  can  be 
said  of  no  other  profession  save  the  profession  of  the  ministers  of  the  gos- 
pel themselves;  if  you  teachers  did  not  do  your  work  well,  this  republic 
would  net  outlast  the  span  of  a  generation. 

"Moreover,  as  an  incident  to  your  avowed  work,  you  render  some  well- 
nigh  unbelievable  services  to  the  country.  For  instance,  you  render  to  this 
republic  the  prime,  the  vital  service  of  amalgamating  into  one  homogen- 
eous body  the  children  of  those  who  are  born  here  and  of  those  who  come 
here  from  so  many  different  lands  abroad.  You  furnish  a  common  train- 
ing and  common  ideals  for  the  children  of  all  the  mixed  peop'es  who  are 
here  being  fused  into  one  nationality.  It  is  in  no  small  degree  due  to  you, 
and  to  your  efforts,  that  we  of  this  great  American  republic  form  one 
people  instead  of  a  group  of  jarring  peoples.  The  children,  wherever  they 
have  been  torn,  wherever  their  parents  have  been  born,  who  are  edu- 
cated in  our  schools  side  by  side  with  one  another,  will  inevitably  grow 


ADDRESSES,  PAPERS  AND  DISCUSSIONS  181 


up  having  that  sense  of  mutual  sympathy  and  mutual  respect  and  under- 
standing which  is  absolutely  indispensible  for  working  out  the  problem* 
that  we  as  citizens  have  before  us." 

The  most  potent  factor  of  all  in  the  advancement  of  our  public  schools 
is  the  teacher.  The  true  teacher  is  the  best  and  noblest  citizen  of  the 
commonwealth.  She  must  possess  a  broad  and  accurate  scholarship.  Her 
every  thought  and  plan  must  be  developed  in  the  light  of  professional 
learning.  By  an  unerring  judgment  she  must  select  the  knowledge  most 
useful  to  the  children.  'She  must  be  skilled  in  the  science  and  art  of 
school  government.  An  intense  patriotic  sentiment,  must  be  among  her 
cardinal  virtues,  an  unfaltering  faith  in  humanity  one  of  her  marked 
characteristics.  A  heart  power  that  is  profound  and  inspiring  must  be  one 
of  her  noblest  attributes.  Though  a  conversationalist  by  nature,  she  will 
make  it  a  constant  rule  to  talk  always  as  well  as  she  can.  Her  personality 
is  pleasing,  her  demeanor  captivating.  She  is  an  adept  in  that  rarest  of 
social  traits — the  flexibility  of  adaptation.  She  is  fortunate  in  her  physical 
strength.  She  is  obedient  to  the  laws  of  health  and  she  cultivates  the 
same  habit  among  her  pupils.  By  example  as  well  as  by  precept  she 
teaches  the  godliness  of  cleanliness.  In  dress  she  is  tasteful  without  ex- 
travagance. In  all  her  work  she  teaches  much  of  a  few  things  rather  than 
a  little  of  many  things.  She  knows  that  it  is  better  to  inspire  the  heart 
with  a  noble  sentiment  than  to  teach  the  mind  a  truth  of  science.  She 
does  both.  ,An  irreproachable  character  is  her  supreme  charm,  and  an 
untiring  industry  her  great  genius.  She  is  no  amateur  adventurer  nor 
reckless  pretender,  but  one  fitted  by  nature  and  training  for  her  signal 
calling.  The  opportunity  laid  upon  her  is  matchless;  matchless  also  is 
her  responsibility.  She  should  not  be  hired  through  the  favoritism  of  the 
spoils  politician  nor  the  nepotism  of  some  selfish  relative,  but  she  should 
hold  her  place  under  the  merit  system  on  her  own  tenure  of  office.  As  a 
matter  of  simple  justice  she  should  receive  a  salary  commensurate  with 
her  qualifications  and  her  success.  Her  final  reward  will  be  better  than 
the  merchandise  of  silver,  and  the  gain  thereof  than  fine  gold. 

The  true  teacher  knows  that  knowledge  does  not  comprise  all  that  is 
contained  in  the  bread  term  of  education.  The  feelings  are  to  be  dis- 
ciplined, the  passions  restrained,  true  and  worthy  mcUves  inspired;  a 
profound  religious  sentiment  inst~ied  and  pure  morality  inculcated  under 
all  circumstances.  She  will  teach  her  pupils  that  integrity  and  industry 
are  the  best  possession  that  can  ever  come  to  young  men  and  young- 
women  in  this  life.  She  will  teach  her  boys  that  "every  man  who  falls 
below  his  highest,  harms  not  only  himself,  but  lowers  the  standard  of 
his  country;  that  every  man  who  values  wealth  more  than  honesty,  rank 
more  than  character,  amusement  rather  than  improvement,  ease  more  than, 
reform,  to  that  extent  falls  short  of  the  perfect  citizen."  She  will  teach 
her  girls  that  "every  woman  who  abuses  the  freedom  of  American  woman- 
hood by  unfaithfulness,  lends  the  powerful  encitement  of  her  personality 
to  the  slavery  of  the  past  and  to  the  failure  of  the  republic;  that  every 


182  NORMAL   TRAINING   IN   HIGH    SCHOOLS 


woman  who  leaves  the  duty  and  decorum  of  xier  native  land  and  prostitutes 
her  American  home  to  the  scandals,  the  vices,  the  social  immoralities  and 
moral  impurities!  of  foreign  cities,  not  only  compasses  her  own  shame, 
but  mars  the  fair  fame  and  name  of  all  Columbia's  daughters.  "  She 
will  teach  her  boys  and  girls  that  "it  is  only  by  surpassing  the  world  in 
all  chivalry  and  dignity,  in  all  modesty  and  purity,  in  the  integrity  of  our 
business,  in  the  virtue  of  our  homes',  in  the  rectitude  of  our  intelligence, 
in  the  aspiration  of  our  intellectual  life  under  the  absolute  control  of 
moral  righteousness,  that  we  can  meet  the  responsibilities  of  American 
citizenship." 


A — B 

Addresses,  Papers  &  Discussions 91 

Normal  Training  in  High  Schools — R.  H.  Graham.  .  . '. 93 

Normal  Training  in  High  Schools — S.  A.  Downey 138 

Pedagogy  in  High  School  Course — W.  R.  Hart 97 

What  to  Teach — State  Dep't.   of  Education 103 

Teaching    of    Arithmetic — Simon    Newcomb 112 

Suggestions  for  Improvement  Study  Period — P.  M.  McMurry   125 
Business  Men's  Criticisms  of  Public  Schools — J.  W.  Crabtree   131 

Normal   Training   in   Lincoln — Margaret    Hall 143 

Beatrice — Emma  Wilhelmson 146 

Broken  Bow — J.  M.  Mclndoo 148 

York — Elizabeth  Hawxby 150 

Holdrege — C.  W.  McMichael 154 

No.  Platte — Wilson  Tout 155 

Normal  Training — Reading — Ashland-F.  M.  Hunter 158 

Reading — Omaha-Anna  L.  Peterson 165 

Grammar — Albion-H.  C.  Pilley 159 

Geography — Tecumseh-Maude  Emerson.  .  160 
Agriculture — Wisner-W.  T.  Stockdale.  .  .  .  160 
American  History-Beatrice-Marie  P.  Upson  161 
U.  S.  History — Blair-Ina  B.  Robinson.  .  .  162 

Pedagogy — Pairbury-A.   L.    Caviness 163 

Pedagogy — Lexington-Jas.  E.  Delzell.  ...  167 
Arithmetic — Beaver  City-W.  T.  Davis....  164 

Admission,    Qualifications    for 6,    9 

Aid,   State    10 

Agriculture 66,   78 

In  Wisner  Schools-W.  T.  Stockdale 160 

Appropriation    11 

Approval,  Requirements  governing 9 

Approved    High    Schools    9 

Approved  Under  Law  of  1905    19 

Arithmetic    25,    29 

In  Beaver  City  School-W.  T.  Davis 164 

Teaching  of-Simon  Newcomb    112 

What   to   Teach 105 

Beatrice   Normal    Training 15 


186  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


C— D 

Committees: 

Outlines  in  Agriculture 75 

Outlines   in   Arithmetic 29 

Outlines  in  English  Grammar 36 

Outlines  in  English  for  the  Grades  in  High  School 45 

Outlines  in  English   for  High  School    52 

Outlines  in  Geography    56 

Outlines   in   History    66 

Outlining  Plan    ...  19 

Outlines  in  Professional  Training    87 

Outlines  in  Reading 25 

Course  of  Study  for  High  Schools    13 

Downey,    I.    A 7 

E — F — G 

English    Grammar    29,    52 

Entrance    Declaration     6 

Expenses    of    Inspection     10 

Five  Essentials,  The 104,  111 

General    Requirements     20 

Geography 53,    56 

In    Tecumseh    Schools-Maude   Emerson 160 

What    to    Teach    106 

Graduates    High    School     12 

Grammar,    English    29,    36 

For  the  Grades 36,  45 

For  the  High  School 45,  52 

In  Albion  Schools-H.  C.  Filley 159 

What   to    Teach    106 

H— I— J 

High  School  Course  of  Study    13 

High  School  Graduates    13 

High    Schools   Designated    9 

History  of  the  Scheme  in  Nebraska 17 

History,  U.   S    ! 56-66 

In  Beatrice  Schools-Maria  P  Upsom    161 

In  Blair  Schools-Ina  B.   Robinson    162 

What   to    Teach    110 

Inauguration   of   Plan    19 

Inspection    10 

Inspection  of  Normal  Training  in  High  Schools 7 


INDEX  187 


K — L 
Me — M — N 

Normal  Training  in  High  Schools — R.  H.  Graham  93 

I.  A.  Downey 138 

Beatrice — Emma  Wilhelmson 146 

Broken  Bow — J.  M.  Mclndoo 148 

Holdrege — C.  W.  McMichael 154 

Lincoln — Margaret  Hall 143 

No.  Platte— Wilson  Tout 155 

York — Elizabeth  Hawxby 150 

Normal  Training  Required    18 

O— P— Q 

Observation,    Suggested   Lessons   for    84 

Observation  Lessons,  Outline  for  Discussion 83 

Observation  Work,  Suggested  Plan    87,  88 

Office    Force    3 

Official    Roster    • 3 

Omaha    Normal    Training    15 

Outlines  on  English  for  the  Grades 36-45 

for  the  High  School    45-52 

Outline  of  Work  by  Special  Committees 20-87 

Pedagogy 

In  Pairbury  School — A.  L.  Caviness    163 

In  High  School  Course — W.  R.  Hart 97 

In  Lexington  School — Jas.   E.   Delzell    167 

Professional    Training    78-87 

Purpose  of  Normal  Training 9 

Public  Schools — Business  Men's  Criticisms — J.  W.   Crabtree    ....    131 

R— S 

Reading 20-25 

In  Ashland   Schools — F.    M.    Hunter    158 

In  Omaha  Schools — Anna  Lockwood  Peterson    165 

What    to    Teach    104 

Recognized    Schools    8 

Requirements  for  Approval    9,   20 

Roster,    Official     3 

Schools  Approved  under  Law  of  1905    ' 19 

Schools   Notified    3 

Schools    of   the    People    11 

Schools   Recognized    : 8 

Standard  Course  of  Study  for  High  Schools 13 

State    Aid    10 

Study  Period — Suggestions  for  Improvement-F.  M.  McMurry  ....    125 


188  NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


T — U — V 

Talks  by  the  Department 168-182 

What  the  Teaching  Profession  Offers  Young  Men 16& 

The  Nervous  &  Peevish  Teacher 170 

The  Patient  &  Inspiring  170 

Care  of  School  Property  170 

Higher  Education  171 

Self-Culture  175 

A  High  &  Honorable  Profession  180 

United    States    History    56-66 

\V — X—  Y — Z 

What  to  Toach    .  :io;'-l  I  I 


OF  THE  \ 

UNlVERSltV  I 

OF  " 


000 


A- 


